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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 















Etymology and Syntax. 


AN 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 


FOR USE IN NORMAL SCHOOLS, HIGH SCHOOLS, AND ACADEMIES. 


BY 


EDWARD B. SMITH, A. M., 

«» 


Teacher of English in the Central Normal College at Great Bend, 
Kansas, and Author of “Methods in English Grammar,” 
“Exercises in English Grammar,” Etc. 

Jisafe 

V JUN 22IWC.J 


CHICAGO : 

A. Flanagan, Publisher. 




1 


\a> 


AS 






TE 1,11 ^ 


* 


Copyrighted, 1894, 

BY 

A. FLANAGAN. 


PREFACE. 


The author believes 

1. That grammar should be as thoroughly taught as 
arithmetic, and 

2. That if accuracy and thoroughness are insisted on, no 
study is better adapted to develop the reasoning powers than 
grammar. 

Those who assent to the foregoing propositions will proba¬ 
bly find this little book of some benefit in their work, even if 
they do not accept all its conclusions. 

While it is assumed throughout the work that “ Truth is 
its own authority,” and that the only test of the accuracy of 
definitions and principles is found in an appeal to the Eng¬ 
lish language as it is , the attention of the critical is called to 
the fact that every position taken is in substantial harmony 
with such authorities as the Century Dictionary, Webster’s, 
and the Imperial, and the grammars of Whitney, Bain, Mor¬ 
ris, and Mulligan. 

To Holbrook’s Complete Grammar the author is more 
largely indebted than he can express, or perhaps comprehend. 
For twenty years Dr. Holbrook’s book has been a standing 
refutation of the notion that a grammar cannot be at once 
profound and practical; and it has probably done more, 
directly or indirectly, to stimulate thought than all other 
grammars in use. If this book shall have a similar tendency, 
the author’s purpose will be fully accomplished. 

Great Bend, Kansas, 

March, 1894. 





























































CONTENTS. 


Pages. 

Preliminary Definitions. 11 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Nouns. *5 

Pronouns. 3 2 

Adjectives. 47 

Verbs. 53 

Adverbs. 9° 

Prepositions. 99 

Conjunctions. io 5 

Interjections. IT 3 

SYNTAX. 

Constructions in General. XI 7 

Constructions of Nouns and Pronouns. 128 

Exercises in Parsing Nouns and Pronouns . 14 2 

Constructions of Adjectives. J 49 

Exercises in Parsing Adjectives. ! 53 

Constructions of Adverbs. J 59 

Exercises in Parsing Adverbs . *^3 

Constructions of Finite Verbs. *^ 8 

Exercises in Parsing Finite Verbs. I 7 I 


5 





















6 


CONTENTS. 


Constructions of Infinitives and Participles. 173 

Exercises in Parsing Infinitives and Participles. 185 

Constructions of Prepositions. igi 

Exercises in Parsing Prepositions. 192 

Constructions of Conjunctions. 193 

Exercises in Parsing Conjunctions. 193 

Exercises in Parsing Interjections. 194 

SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS. 

Definitions and Exercises. 193 

Model Diagrams and Analyses. 204 

Additional Sentences for Parsing and Analysis. 217 














A FEW PRACTICAL HINTS. 


I. Pupils sufficiently advanced to use this book should 
prepare all lessons in parsing, analysis,, and diagraming, in 
writing. 

A great many reasons can be given for this, among which are the 
following: 

1. Neatness and accuracy are promoted. 

“ Writing makes an exact man.” 

2 . Drill is thus afforded in penmanship, punctuation, capitali¬ 

zation, spelling and the construction of sentences. 

“ We learn to do by doing.” 

3 . The power of attention is cultivated. 

When we are required to submit a written opinion, we are usually careful to 
know that it is correct. 

4 . The memory is aided. 

We remember longer and recall more readily what we have written. 

5 . It secures the preparation of the lesson before the class is 

called. 

The recitation hour should be devoted to the recitation, not to study. 

6 . The pupil’s work is in better shape for examination and 

criticism. 

II. Use the black-board freely. 

1 . Declensions, conjugations, etc., should be written on the 
board from memory , under the teacher’s direction. At a 


7 



8 


ETYMOLOGY . 


given signal let each pupil step to the right and inspect 
his neighbor’s work, checking all mistakes detected. 
(Insist on thoroughness and dispatch.) 

2. In parsing, send to the board as many pupils as can be 

accommodated, and then direct each one to transcribe 
from his parsing-book the parsing of a single word. (See 
page i48for suggestions as to form.) This work is largely 
mechanical, and should not be allowed to occupy more 
than two or three minutes. In the general criticisms that 
follow, see that the entire class give attention to each 
word in its turn. 

3. Each sentence assigned for analysis should also be dia¬ 

gramed. Have diagrams placed on the board and criti¬ 
cised as directed under parsing. Let oral analysis by 
individuals and in concert follow. 

4. Do not neglect the written analysis of sentences. Many 

pupils who are able to diagram long and difficult sen¬ 
tences, fail ignominiously when required to give the oral 
analysis of an easy one; and few, comparatively, are able 
to write correctly the analysis of an ordinary sentence. 
Until satisfactory proficiency is attained, the written 
analysis of at least one sentence a day should be placed 
on the board. 

III. While the pupils should always be prepared for 
black-board work, it need not always be required. After the 
class has advanced somewhat, and especially when many 
words are to be parsed, a pupil may be permitted to read 
from his parsing-book, while the other members of the class 
note the points of difference between his work and theirs. 
Frequently the parsing-books should be exchanged, that each 
pupil may have the work of another to criticise. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


9 


IV. Encourage criticism and discussion, but do not per¬ 
mit either to consume too much time. If it becomes evident 
that a definite, unanimous conclusion will not be reached 
within a reasonable time, postpone all discussion to another 
day, indicating authorities to be consulted, and insisting upon 
each pupil’s forming an opinion as to the point under consider¬ 
ation. 

V. Encourage free expression of honest conviction, but 
do not tolerate mere controversial talk. Do not allow the 
more forward to consume all the time allotted for discussion. 
Encourage the timid by requiring their opinions and treating 
them with respect. 

VI. Become a student yourself, that you may the better 
prepare for every recitation. Endeavor to be right, but if it 
should happen that you are in the wrong sometimes (as who 
of us is not frequently ?), do not permit false pride to pre¬ 
vent an honest confession. Your pupils will esteem you 
more highly, and your example will be a valuable lesson to 
them. 

VII. Finally, encourage your pupils to ask all questions 
and face all grammatical problems in that spirit of candor 
which, while it will yield to nothing but reason, is ever open 
to conviction. 


























































CHAPTER I. 


PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS. 

1. A Language is a system of signs called words, em¬ 
ployed as an instrument of thought. 

Remark.—I n its metaphorical use the word language is often ap¬ 
plied to “ every mode of communication by which facts can be made 
known, sentiments or passions expressed, or emotions excited.” 

According to Abp. Thompson, “ Language, in its most general ac¬ 
ceptance, might be described as a mode of expressing our thoughts by 
means of motions of the organs of the body; it would thus include 
spoken words, cries, and involuntary gestures that indicate the feelings, 
even painting and sculpture, together with those contrivances which 
replace speech in situations where it cannot be employed—the tele¬ 
graph, the trumpet-call, the emblem, the hieroglyphic.” 

But, certainly, the word should not be used in this broad sense by 
grammarians; and any attempt by them so to employ it leads to 
absurdities. 

Neither does it appear that the restriction of language to the mere 
communication of thought is proper. Though we may speak and 
write our language, we also employ it in the thoughts which we do not 
utter. It is not only one of the means whereby we can communicate 
thought—it is also one of the means whereby we can think. 

2 . A Word is such a sign of an idea as may be expressed 
both by spoken sounds and written characters. 


n 



12 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Remark. —It is not only hypercritical but erroneous to designate 
as words spoken words only, and to say that a written word is but the 
sign of the spoken word—“ a sign of a sign.” Chronologically this may 
be the case in the experience of the individual, as it has been in the 
experience of the race ; but we have only to reflect that deaf mutes, 
who can have no proper conception of spoken words, are able to learn 
and use written words, to understand that the latter are as truly “ signs 
of ideas” as are the former. A letter is as much (but no more) the 
sign of a sound as the sound is the sign of the letter. 

3. The Science of Language, or Comparative Phi¬ 
lology, deals with the origin, nature, and laws of language. 
It has several departments with more or less definite limits. 

4. Grammar is the division of the science of language 
which treats of the classification and modifications of words, 
and of their arrangement and relations in phrases and sen¬ 
tences. 

Remark. —Grammar is sometimes incorrectly called an art. “ A 
science teaches us to know, an art to do.” The grammatical use of 
language is largely a matter of habit, and does not even imply that one 
has studied grammar. Indeed, one may have a thorough knowledge 
of grammar, and habitually violate its principles. It is true, however, 
that as one acquires a knowledge of the principles of grammar, he may 
also acquire the power to apply these principles in speaking and writ¬ 
ing. In other words, grammar is not a useless science; and while by 
the study of the subject the mind is invigorated and disciplined, the 
knowledge thus obtained affords in part the true basis of the art of 
using language correctly. 

5. Etymology, as a division of grammar, treats of the 
classification and modifications of words. 

Remark.— Etymology in its broader application includes the his¬ 
tory of words-their origin, and the changes they have undergone in 
meaning and form. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


13 


6. Words are classified with respect to meaning and struc¬ 
ture. 

As to meaning words are classified as follows : 


I. 

Nouns. 

5- 

Adverbs. 

2. 

Pronouns. 

6. 

Prepositions. 

3- 

Adjectives. 

7- 

Conjunctions. 

4- 

Verbs. 

8. 

Interjections. 


(For definitions of these classes of words, consult the different chapters devoted 
to the discussion of them.) 

As to structure , words are Simple, Complex, or Compound. 

1. A simple word is a single word ; as, boy, John. 

2. A complex word is one which consists of two or more words 
not connected ; as, George Washington , Great Bend. 

3. A compound word is one which consists of two or more 
words which retain their separate forms and meanings ; as, 
ink-stand , Brown-Sequard, blackberry , pickpocket , housetop. 

7. The Modifications of a word are changes in its form 
to denote its different significations or relations. 

8. Syntax treats of the arrangement and relations of 
words when used in phrases or sentences. 

9. The Construction of a word is its syntactical use. 

10. Concord, in grammar, denotes the harmony of the 
forms of word§ with their significations and constructions. 

Hem. —To each meaning or construction of a word that undergoes 
modification usage has assigned an appropriate form. By this it is not 
meant that any word has a separate form for every one of its meanings 
or constructions. The same form may be required by several different 
uses of the word, but a word seldom has more than one form appro¬ 
priate to the same use. 




14 


ETYMOLOGY. 


1. If a word when used has the proper form, it is said to be used 
grammatically. 

2. A solecism is the use of a form not called for by the mean¬ 

ing and construction of the word. 

(Note.— In a more general sense, any construction not English is a solecism.) 

3. When words are combined to form a sentence, or an element 
of a sentence, it may happen that the meaning or form of 
one will require that another shall be used in a particular 
form. The former is then said to govern the latter. 

4 - When a word which governs another has a form or meaning 
called by the same name as the form which the governed 
word must take, the latter word, if correctly used, is said to 
agree with the former. 

ii. A word is said to modify another when used to limit, 
extend, explain, or emphasize, its signification. 

Rem.— When a word modifies another the latter is called the 
base, or principal term ; and sometimes the modifier is called a de¬ 
pendent element. 

Criticism. 

Point out the errors in the following definitions : 

1. Language is the medium for the communication of thought. 

2. Language is any method of communicating thought or feeling. 

3. A word is the sign of an idea. 

4. A word is a significant sound or combination of sounds. 

5. A word is a letter, or a combination of letters, used as the sign 
of an idea. 

6. Grammar is the science which treats of the principles and 
usages of language. 

7. English grammar teaches how to speak, to write, and to read the 
English language correctly. 




CHAPTER II. 


NOUNS. 

I. Definition. 

Noun : Latin, nomen —name. 

12 . A Noun is a word used as the name of something. 

II. Classification. 

13 . Nouns are classified as Proper and Common. 

Proper Nouns. 

14 . A Proper Noun is one which is particular and 
meaningless. 

Rem.—A Proper Noun is applied to an object to distinguish it 
from the rest of its class. 

15. Proper nouns may designate— 

1. Persons ; as, Mary , Napoleon Bonaparte, Bulwer-Lytton. 

2. Places; as, Chicago, New York, Nan-King. 

3. Buildings, works of nature, etc.; as St. Peter's, Mammoth 
Cave , Niagara Falls. 

4. Firms, corporations, etc.; as, John Smith dr 3 Co., The 
American Book Company. 

5 . Days, months, festivals, etc.; as, Monday, January, Christ¬ 
mas, Arbor Day. 



i6 


ETYMOLOGY. 


6 . Other things ; as, the point B, the line A B, The Christian 
Advocate. 

Rem. —Of course, it is not denied that many proper nouns have a 
traditional meaning, or that there may now and then be found a 
proper noun which could have been applied in its primary sense to the 
person or thing which it designates. This is the case when Mr. Smith 
is a smith , when Mr. Weaver is a weaver , and when Mr. Porter is a 
doorkeeper , or engages in carrying luggage for hire. Occasionally, too, 
when some object is to receive a proper name, one is selected with 
reference to some real or fancied agreement of its primary meaning 
with the character of the thing to be designated. 

“Many, probably almost all, proper nouns were originally signifi¬ 
cant, conveying some particular meaning. This was first of all pre¬ 
eminently connected with a single individual, and then came by-and- 
by to be applied to this individual alone. In the long run, this signifi¬ 
cation was dropt, and the name was regarded as the distinctive 
designation of the particular object.”— Bain. 

Thus, originally, John meant “ The gracious gift of God Moses, 
“Drawn out of the water”; Lydia , “A native of Lydia, in Asia 
Minor”; Martha , “ The ruler of the house but no one will pretend 
that as now applied to persons these names always have their former 
meanings. They are mere marks or signs to designate certain ob¬ 
jects. On the other hand the words boy, girl, slate , hat , etc., have 
meaning. They do not tell us which , but what kind of object is meant. 

Common Nouns. 

16. A Common Noun is one which is significant. 

17. Common Nouns are either General or Particular. 

18. A General (or Class) Noun is one which may be 
applied to any individual of a class of objects ; as, boy, desk, 
apple. 




ETYMOLOGY . 


17 


19. A Particular (or Sui Generis ) Noun is one which is 
applied to an object existing as a sort by itself, without 
plurality ; as, gold, electricity, honesty. 

20. The following sub-classes of nouns are also to be 
noticed : 

1. Concrete common nouns, or those which are the names of 
sensible objects; as, tree, horse, hill. 

2. Abstract common nouns, or those common nouns which 
do not name sensible objects; as,goodness, truth, motion. 

Rem. 1 .— Proper nouns also have these sub classes ; but as the abstract proper 
nouns are seldom met, it is not usual to classify proper nouns as Concrete and 
Abstract. 

Rem. 2.—By some authors only those nouns which are the names of attributes 
are called abstract. 

3. Collective nouns, or those which may apparently assume 
plural meanings while they retain their singular forms; as 
jury, herd, congregation. 

4. Participial nouns, or those which have the form of partici¬ 
ples; as, “The murmuring of the brook”; “The singing 
of the bird.” 

5. (Quantitive nouns, or those which are the names of the 
denominations of weights and measures; as, pound, i?ich, 
quart. 

6. Diminutives, or those concrete nouns which are derived 
from other nouns and denote small or young objects of the 
kind denoted by the primitives ; as, lambkin, gosling, leaflet. 

7. Mass nouns, or those concrete nouns which are the names 
of masses; as, ice, air, water , wheat, iron. 

R em ._The list of sub-classes of nouns may be extended indefinitely, but the 
foregoing will probably be found sufficient for all needful drill in classifying nouns. 

21 . An article or a pronominal adjective before a proper noun may 



ETYMOLOGY. 


18 


show that the latter is not used for its ordinary purpose, but to suggest 
some trait, quality, or characteristic of the object it designates. The 
proper noun is thus made significant, and becomes a common noun; 
as, He is a Cicero —i.e. a great orator; It was a Waterloo —i.e. an over- 
whelming defeat; “ This Phlegethon of fury swept my shuddering spirit 
o'er.” 

22. A common noun, with a definite article before it, may lose its 
ordinary meaning and serve merely to mark or designate some par¬ 
ticular thing, and thus become a proper noun; as, The Park, The 
Nation, etc. 

23. By the figure of personification common nouns may become 
proper; as, 

“ From thee, sweet Hope her airy colorings draws ; 

And Fancy's flights are subject to thy laws.”—R ogers. 

Direction.—Classify the following nouns '.—John, America , North 
Carolina , Chimborazo, life, lead , measles, gallon , rod, yardstick , sweet¬ 
ness, clay , corn, schooling, morning, gloaming. 

Criticism. 

Point out the errors in the following definitions and statements. 

1. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or thing. 

2. A proper noun is a name peculiar to an individual, or class of 
individuals. 

3. A proper noun is a special name given to a particular one of a 
class. 

4. A common noun is the name of a whole class of objects, or 
things, or any one of a class. 

5. A common noun is a general or class name. 

6. A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of 
a kind or class of objects. 

7. A common noun is a name which belongs to many objects in 
common. 



ETYMOLOGY . 


*9 


8. In the sentence, ‘ To lie is disgraceful,’ to lie is a noun because it 
is used as the subject of the verb is. 

9. In the sentence, ‘ To work is to pray,’ to work is a noun because 
it merely names an action. 

10. Common nouns may be divided into four classes:—Class 
Nouns, Abstract Nouns, Collective Nouns, and Participial Nouns. 

III. Modification. 

24. The modifications of nouns are Number , Gender , 
and Case. 

Rein.—Nouns do not have the modification of person. They 
may, of course, denote the speaker , the person spoken to, or the person 
or thing spoken of, but they do not have separate forms to mark these 
different relations. 

Number. 

25. Number is the modification of words to distinguish 
unity from plurality. 

26. The Number of a word is the form which the word 
takes to show the distinction of unity or plurality. 

27 . English nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural. 

Rem.—In some languages, nouns and other parts of speech have a dual number, 
to denote two objects. This form existed in the old English, but belonged only to 
the personal pronoun of the first and second person, and all trace of its use is lost 
before the year 1300 , 

28. The Singular Number is the form which denotes 
unity. 

29. The Plural Number is the form which denotes 
plurality. 



20 


ETYMOLOGY . 


30. English nouns form the plural number according to 
one or the other of two general modes : 

1. By inflections, or changes in their endings. 

2. By radical variations, or changes within the word. 

31. Rules for forming the plurals of nouns: 

Rale I. Nouns regularly form their plurals by adding s to their 
singulars. 

Rule II. Common nouns ending in ch soft, g, sh, x, z, or 0 
preceded by a consonant, form their plurals by adding es to the 
singular. 

The following nouns ending in 0 preceded by a consonant form their plurals regu¬ 
larly, contrary to Rule II: albino, armadillo, bravo, canto, domino, duodecimo, fresco, 
gaucho, junto, halo, lasso, limbo, memento, octavo, piano, portico (sores), proviso, 
quarto, salvo, sirocco, solo, stiletto, two, tyro, zero. 

Rule III. Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant 
form their plurals by changing y to i and adding es. 

Rule 1Y. Nouns of pure English origin, ending in f or fe pre¬ 
ceded by any long vowel sound except 00, or by 1, change f to v, 
and add es. 

I,ist of words governed by Rule IV : beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, 
sheaf, shelf staff, thief wharf wife, wolf Wharf has also the regular form 
wharfs; and staff— the only word ending in ff which has the ending ves—has staffs. 

Rule Y. A few nouns form their plurals by adding en, either 
with or without other changes. 

Of these ox is the only noun in which the ending is the old English plural. 

Rule VI. Foreign nouns not fully anglicized retain their for¬ 
eign plurals (but not their duals). 

Rem.-In foreign words, when possible, use English plurals in ordinary dis¬ 
course. Always use the foreign plurals if they are formed by changing is to es or 
ides. 




ETYMOLOGY. 


21 


In the case of each of the following words, determine whether an English 


plural has been acquired. Ascertain the foreigu plural. 


Alumna 

Calculus 

Amanuensis 

Arena 

Exodus 

Analysis 

Aqua 

Focus 

Apsis 

Nebula 

Genius 

Epidermis 

Scora 

Hippopotamus 

Calix 

Tinctura 

Eiteratus 

Quincunx 


Automaton 

Dogma 

Earynx 

Bandit 

Cherub 

Plateau 


Rule VII. Letters, figures, signs, and words used technically 
as names, are made plural by adding an apostrophe and s. 

Examples.—Dot your i's and cross your t's. There are four it’s in this sentence. 

Add the D's. A’s, VGf" s, *'s, fs, ~^’s, g’s, are very useful symbols. 

Rule VIII. The following nouns form their plurals by means 
of radical variations. 

a changed to e 
man | mm 

oo changed to ee 
goose I geese 

tooth I teeth 

ous changed to ie 
low5e I lice 

mow.se ■ m zee 


Rule IX. In forming the plurals of complex or compound 
nouns, the practice is to make plural the part which is regarded as 
the base of the expression, according to the rules applicable to the 
particular class to which the base belongs; as, six per cents,fathers- 
in-law, spoon-fulls, etc. 


Rem. 1.—Some nouns have two plural forms which differ in meaning; as, 

brother, cloth, die,genius, index, pea, penny. _ _ 

Direction.—Write both plural forms of each of the foregoing. Note the differ¬ 


ence in meaning. ... . . 

Rem. 2.—The following nouns, and all collective nouns, not only have plura 

forms, but may also be plural in thought when singular in form: cannon, fish, foot, 

head, horse, sail, shot. . 

Direction.—Use each of the foregoing words in the plural number. Use each 





22 


ETYMOLOGY. 


the singular form, but with a plural meaning. Note the difference in the two 
plural meanings. 

Proceed similarly with the collective nouns, flock, multitude, army. 

Item. 3.—The plurals of some nouns appear to differ in meaning from the 
singulars. 

Some have two meanings in the singular, with the least common of which the 
plural agrees ; as, compass, content, corn, iron , salt, etc. 

Rem. 4.—Some nouns are never used in the singular ; as, mumps , ashes, scis¬ 
sors , etc. 

Rem. 5. Some nouns, though plural in form, are treated as singular; as, 
molasses, news, mathematics , etc. 

Rem. 6. Some nouns have no nominative plural; as, deer, sheep , swine. 

(These nouns have the regular possessive plural, however.) 

Rem. 7.—A few compound nouns consisting of two parts, have both parts made 
plural. Examples : — men-servants , ignes-fatui. 

Rem. 8. The plurals of proper nouns are usually formed in accordance with 
the rules for common nouns. 

Rem. 9.—When a proper noun is preceded by a title, the plural may be formed, 
by inflecting either the name or the title ; as, The Miss Clarks , or the Misses Cla ; k. 
By some authors it is contended that both title and name should be made plural ; 
as, The Misses Clarks, The Doctors Johnsons. It is agreed on all sides that the title 
should be plural when it applies to two names ; thus, The Misses Clark and Brozim, 
Dr s. Johnson and Jones. Mrs. is never made plural, but Mrss. has been suggested 
as an appropriate form. 

32. Pronunciation.—i. In pronouncing the plurals of nouns 
whose singulars end with the sound of p, t, k, f, or th (aspirate), add to 
the singulars the sound of s, but do not make an additional syllable. 

2 . If the singulars end with the sound of any vowel, or of m, r, n?, 

1 , r, b, d, g (as in go), y, til (as in the), add to the singulars the sound 
of z, but do not make an additional syllable. 

3 . If the singulars end with the sound of s, z, sh, orzh, add the 
sound ez to the singulars. 

(The foregoing rules are applicable in the case of all English plurals, but, of 
course, do not apply in the case of many nouns which retain their foreign plurals.) 

Direction. —Write and pronounce the plurals of the following words : 





ETYMOLOGY. 


23 


Larva 

Scholium 

Isthmus 

Brown 

Stigma 

Medium 

Alkali 

Esquire 

Alumnus 

Iris 

Rabbi 

Stave 

Fungus 

Larynx 

Vice 

Man-stealer 

Polypus 

Metropolis 

Bush 

9 

Radius 

Seraph 

Money 

6 

Calculus 

Genus 

Box 

Cupful 

Criterion 

Cicero 

Goose (a tailor’s) 

Father-in-law 

Datum 

Ptolomy 

The 

German 

Encomium 

Henry 

Is 

Bushman 


Gender. 

33. Gender, in English, is the modification of nouns and 
pronouns to indicate the distinction of sex in the objects to 
which these nouns and pronouns refer. 

34. The gender of a noun is the form which the noun 
takes according as it denotes a male or a female. 

35 . English nouns have but two genders, The Masculine 
and The Feminine , and the difference is always shown by 
inflections. 

Rem.—The number of English nouns which have gender is very 
small. 

36. The Masculine Gender is the form which indicates 
that the object denoted by the noun is of the male sex. 

37. The Feminine Gender is the form which indicates 
that the object is of the female sex. 

38 . There are three ways of distinguishing the sex of 
objects denoted by English nouns. 

1. By employing corresponding words applicable to only one sex 
or the other. 




24 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Rem.—This method is a substitute for gender, and is not a modification at 
all, but is based on the meaning of the words. 


MALE. 

FEMALE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

Bachelor 

Maid 

Father 

Mother 

Milter 

Spawner 

Boy 

Girl 

Friar 

Sister 

Monk 

Nun 

Brother 

Sister 

Gander 

Goose 

Papa 

Mamma 

Buck 

Doe 

Gentleman Lady 

Son 

Daughter 

Cock 

Hen 

Hart 

Roe 

Stag 

Hind 

Drake 

Duck 

Husband 

Wife 

Tailor 

Seamstress 

Drone 

Bee 

King 

Queen 

Tutor 

Governess 

Earl 

Countess 

Mallard 

Wild duck 

Uncle 

Aunt 


2. By compounds with distinguishing prefixes or suffixes. 

Rem.—The prefixes or suffixes may be words from the foregoing list, or they 
may be words having the modification of gender. 


(1) By Prefixes. 


MALE. 

FEMALE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

Male- servant 

Female- servant 

He-g oat 

She-gont 

Man- servant 

Maid-servant 

Buck- rabbit 

Z><?«?-rabbit 

Man- kind 

Wdman-\tin& 

G?rv£-sparrow 

Hen - sparrow 

He- bear 

She- bear 

Dog-iox 

Bitch-iox 

(2) By Suffixes. 

Foster-father Foster-mother 

Moor-cock 

Moor-hen 

Gentle-man 

Gentle-woman 

Pea-cock 

Pea-hen 

Grand-father 

Grand-mother 

Step-father 

Step-mother 

Land-lord 

Land-lady 

Step-son 

Step-daughter 

Mer-man 

Mer-maid 

Turkey-cock 

Turkey-hen 

Milk-man 

Milk-maid 

French-man 

French- woman 


3. By the modification of gender. 

Rem.—The terminations, ess, Irix, ine, a, et, ette, etta, and 
ster are feminine; er, or, and rake (or rick) are masculine. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


25 


Directions. —1. Write the feminine of each of the following nouns. 
Some have more than one form to denote the female. 

Abbott, astor, administrator, adjutor, ambassador, adventurer, an¬ 
chorite, arbiter, arbitrator, archer, auditor, author, baron, benefactor, 
canon, caterer, chanter, commander, competitor, conductor, creator, 
count, czar, dauphin, deacon, deserter, doctor, director, diviner, de- 
mander, detractor, don, eagle, editor, embassador, emperor, emulator, 
enchantor, executor, exactor, farmer, founder, factor, giant, god, gov¬ 
ernor, hebrew, heir, heritor, hermit, huckster, hunter, host, infante, in¬ 
habited inheritor, instructor, jesuit, jew, launder, lion, mediator, min¬ 
ister, mister, master, monitor, mayor, negro, offender, ogre, orator, 
painter, patron, peer, poet, porter, prior, proprietor, prophet, prose¬ 
cutor, protector, priest, prince, rector, regent, shepherd, solicitor, song¬ 
ster, sorcerer, steward, suitor, spectator, sultan, tailor, testator, tiger, 
traitor, tyrant, tutor, victor, waiter, warder, wanderer, etc., etc. 

2. Write the masculine forms of the following. 

Bride, carline, czarina, donna, duchess, heroine, landgravine, mar¬ 
gravine, marchioness, palsgravine, pythoness, spinstress, tzarina, sig¬ 
nora, widow, vixen. 

39. In most of the text books on English grammar, gender is em¬ 
ployed (however it may be defined) as a distinction in the form or in the 
meaning of nouns and pronouns. According to this use of the word, 
there are four genders; The Masculine , The Feminine, The Common, 
and The Neuter. 

1. The name of anything of the male sex is said to be of the mas¬ 
culine gender ; as, man , boy, king. 

2. The name of anything of the female sex is said to be of the 
feminine gender; as, wo 7 nan,girl, queen. 

3. A word which may be applied to objects of either sex is said to 
be of the common gender ; as, child , person , animal. But if by the 
context the sex of the object can be determined, the word is then said 
to be of the masculine or feminine gender accordingly. Thus, in the 



26 


ETYMOLOGY. 


sentence, ‘ The child is not to blame, and you should not punish her? 
child would be said to be of the feminine gender. 

4. The names of objects which do not have sex are said to be of 
the neuter gender; as, book, tree, hope, truth. But when by the figure 
of personification inanimate things have life ascribed to them, their 
names are said to be of the masculine or the feminine gender, according 
to the sex implied ; thus, ship would be said to be of the feminine 
gender in the sentence, ‘ The ship went proudly on her way.’ 

Rem.—T he practice of basing gender upon the sex or non-sex of the object has 
caused great confusion. Some authors have attempted to simplify the subject by 
using the terms grammatical gender and natural gender ; but all gender is gram¬ 
matical gender. 

George is masculine, and Georgia is feminine, no matter how the words are 
used ; but if the sex or non-sex of the object should determine the gender of the 
noun, George would be of the neuter gender in the sentence, ‘His name is not 
George 


Case. 

40. Case is the modification of nouns and pronouns to 
indicate their relations as members of phrases and sentences. 

41. The Case of a noun is the form which the noun takes 
to mark its relation to some other word. 

42. English nouns have two cases. The Nominative and 
The Possessive. 

43 . The Nominative Case of a noun is its name-form, 

as boy, boys, hat, hats, truth, John, John Smith. 

44. The Possessive Case of a noun is the Jorm which 
generally indicates that the noun is a modifier of some other 
noun, or that it is the subject of a participle. 

45. In modern English the possessive case of nouns is 
written according to the following rules : 



ETYMOLOGY. 


27 


Rule I.—To form the singular possessive, add ’s to the nomina¬ 
tive. 

Rule II. —To form the plural possessive, add’s to the nomina¬ 
tive unless the nominative ends in s, in which case add 9 only. 

Rem.—Nouns which ordinarily have no plural form may yet take the plural 
possessive ; as deers’, sheeps’, swines’. 

Rule III. —In forming the possessive case of complex or com¬ 
pound nouns, inflect the last component only. 

Rem. 1.—The possessive case, if there were no elision of the vowel, would end 
in is or es, the old Saxon suffixes for the genitive case. 

Rem. 2.—Rule three applies not only to complex nouns, but to many combina¬ 
tions consisting of nouns with their attendant modifiers; as, ‘ The Secretary of 
the Navy’s report,’ ‘Edward the Third’s death,’ ‘ The book is mine and nobody 
else’s.’ 

So, when anything is the joint or common property of several owners, and their 
names are used before it to denote ownership, the sign is annexed to the last name 
only ; as, Smith, Brown and Johnson's store. Smith’s, Brown’s, and Johnson’s 
store would indicate that each of the three owned a separate store. 

In general the principle to be observed in writing the possessive case is to annex 
the sign to the last word. 

Exceptions. —1. The sign ’s does not indicate the possessive case 
when affixed to letters, figures, etc. (See Rule VII.) 

2. Nouns of more than one syllable ending in s or z sometimes 
omit s from the possessive singular. (Why ? Give four examples.) 

3. Some writers omit the s whenever, in their opinion, its use 
would cause too many hissing or buzzing sounds in the pronunciation 
of the word; as, Charles' book, Loomis' Geometry, Barnes' Histories, etc. 

Pronunciation.— See rules for pronouncing the plurals of nouns. 
The possessive case of nouns is always pronounced like the English 
plural. 

Directions. —1. Write and pronounce the possessive case of the 
following: Mr. Bliss, Mr. Brown, Mr. Rapp , The Queen of England , 
Mutual Admiration Society , Goetz of the Iron Hand , dog , horse, John, 
hats,goose,geese, sheep, mouse, mice, Block dr 9 Co., Miles, Myers. 



28 


/ 


ETYMOLOGY. 


2. Express the following phrases by means of the possessive : The 
field belonging to Mr. Starns. A dictionary named after Noah Web¬ 
ster. An arithmetic written by Dr. Robinson , and another written by 
Dr. Ray. The wives of Henry VIII. Hats for men and hats for boys. 
The reign of Victoria , the Queen of England. The debates of Lincoln 
and Douglas. For the sake of conscience. For the sake of the safety 
of the nation. The charge of the Light Brigade. For the sake of John 
and the sake of no one else. 

46. In the oldest English, nouns had six cases : Nominative, Voca¬ 
tive, Accusative , Genitive, Dative , and Ablative (or Instrumental). We 
have retained the s of the Genitive es, but all the other endings have 
been worn away. 

47. Many authors teach that case is the relation which nouns and 
pronouns have in phrases and sentences. According to this use of the 
term, there would have to be as many different cases as there are 
different relations in which nouns or pronouns can be used, i.e., at least 
eight. (See list of constructions.) Probably, no grammarian would 
contend that nouns have eight cases, but most of them teach that 
nouns have an objective case. Some add an “ independent,” or “ abso¬ 
lute ” case. To speak of case as relation is to ignore the use of the 
term in other languages and its real significance in our own. More¬ 
over, instead of simplifying the matter, it confounds etymology with 
syntax, necessitates confusing distinctions between cas z-forms and 
ca.sz-relations, and logically calls for the adoption of several additional 
names to designate new cases. Furthermore, since verbs (in the infini¬ 
tive and participial modes), adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and sen¬ 
tences, may be used in many of the relations which a noun may have, 
they would certainly have case if case were relation. 

48. A few authors who reject the doctrine that case is relation, 
have fallen into errors equally absurd. Some have defined case as, 

“ That modification of nouns and pronouns which, by means of form 
or position, indicates their relation to other words; or their indepen- 



ETYMOLOGY . 


29 


dent use.” This really means that case is sometimes form , sometimes 
position, and sometimes both! In the expression, ‘The boy’s book/ 
the case of boy's would be its form ; in the sentence, ‘ John struck 
James/ the case of John would be its position; in the sentence, ‘ John 
struck him/ the case of him would be both its form and position. 

A very popular writer and teacher defines case as “Anything which 
may show the relation of nouns or pronouns to other words.” If this 
were true, in the sentence, ‘ He gave the book to John/ the case of 
John would be the preposition to , since to shows the relation of John 
to gave. So, also, in the sentence, ‘Boys, go to school/ the case of 
Boys would be the comma! 

49. In favor of the view that case is form and not relation, I quote 
the following authorities, having selected only such as are of acknowl¬ 
edged weight. The italics are my own. 

1. The Century Dictionary thus defines case in grammar: “ One 
of the forms having different offices in the sentence which together 
make up the inflections of a noun.” 

2. The Imperial Dictionary defines case in grammar as follows: 
“ One of the forms in the declension of a noun, pronoun, or adjective ; 
as, the genitive case." 

3. Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary defines case as follows: 
“ The form of substantives in English, or of substantives and adjec¬ 
tives in Latin, Greek, and other languages, by which their relations to 
other parts of the sentence are indicated.” 

4. The International Dictionary recognizes the new meaning 

which certain writers have sought to impose upon the word : “ One of 

the forms , or the inflections or changes ofform , of a noun, pronoun, or 
adjective, which indicate its relation to other words, and in the aggre¬ 
gate constitute its declension; the relation which a noun or pronoun 
sustains to some other word.” 

5. Morris’s Historical Grammar. “ The different forms which 
a noun (or pronoun) takes, to mark its relations to other words in a sen¬ 
tence, are called cases.” 



ETYMOLOGY . 


3° 


6. Bain’s Higher English Grammar. “Case is an inflexion of 
the noun (or of the pronoun), showing its relation to other words.” 

7. Colegroye’s Scientific Gramma**. “ Case is the mode of in¬ 
flection used to show the relation of one word to another.” 

8. Whitney’s Essentials of English Grammar. 

(The distinguished author is Professor of Comparative Philology in Yale Col¬ 
lege, author of several works on language, one of the editors of the Unabridged 
Dictionary, and Editor in Chief of the Century Dictionary.) 

“ There is no noun in our language which really has an objective 
case, a form different from the nominative, and used when the noun is 
the object either of a verb or of a preposition.” 

It would seem, therefore, that in the opinion of those best entitled 
to pronounce judgment in the matter, the case of a noun or pronoun is 
the form, and not the relation of the word. But this granted, the posi¬ 
tion of those who teach that nouns have two, and pronouns three cases 
is unassailable. 

Declension of Nouns. 

50. A noun is declined by naming all its forms in some 
definite order. 

Examples : 


1. Nouns of complete declension. 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Nom. hero heroes Norn, heroine heroines 

Poss. hero’s heroes’ Poss. heroine’s heroines’ 

2. Nouns of partial declension—gender wanting.* 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Nom. book books Nom. child children 

Poss. book’s bookb’ Poss. child’s children’s 

3. Nouns of partial declension—gender wanting, and defective 
in number. 





ETYMOLOGY . 


31 


Singular. Plural. 

Nom. deer - 

Poss. deer’s deers’ 


Singular. Plural. 

Nom. - scissors 

Poss. - scissors’ 


4. Nouns of partial declension—gender wanting,* but redun¬ 


dant in number. 
Singular. Plural. 

j formulas 
I formulae 
Poss. formula’s formulas’ 


Nom. formula 


Singular. Plural. 

Nom i anima ^ cu ^ e j animalcules 
{animalcuium j animalcula 
Poss. animalcule’s animalcules’ 


Direction.—L et abundant drill be given in the declension of 
nouns, and in the pronunciation of both plural and possessive forms. 


t. e., English gender. 







CHAPTER III. 


PRONOUNS. 

I. Definition. 

Pronoun: Latin, pro —for, noun—name. 

51. A Pronoun is a word which may represent a noun, 
or something which has the construction of a noun. 

52. The word, or combination of words, which the pronoun 
represents, is called the Antecedent of the pronoun.. 

Rem.—B y some authors, when the antecedent follows the pronoun, 
it is called the Subsequent. 

53. The antecedent may, or may not be expressed; it may, 
or may not be known; it may, or may not have the construc¬ 
tion of a noun. 

Examples: 

1. Antecedent expressed:— { The boy found his knife.’ 

2. Antecedent not expressed, but known: — l \ know who broke 
the window.’ 

3. Antecedent not expressed and riot known: —‘ What is that ? ’ 

4. Antecedent fiot a noun but having the construction of a noun :— 
‘You who know can answer;’ ‘To walk is so difficult that I 
shall not attempt it;' ‘I know that you art honest, which makes 
me respect you.’ 


32 



ETYMOLOGY. 


33 


5. Antecedent not a noun and not having the construction of a 

noun: — ‘ I spoke kindly to the boy , for which he seemed grateful.’ 

II. Classification. 

54. Pronouns are classified as follows:— The Personal 
Pronoun, The Relative Pronouns, and The Interrogative Pro¬ 
nouns. 

55. The personal and relative pronouns have also the 
classes Simple and Compound. 

The Personal Pronoun. 

56 . The Personal Pronoun is the one which has gram¬ 
matical person. 

57. The only personal pronoun is the word I, of which 
you, he, she , it, etc., are the declined forms. 

This is not true historically, but certainly is the case in modern 
English. 

“ Compound Personal Pronouns .” 

58. Consolidated phrases, consisting regularly of the noun 
self limited by the possessive cases of the personal pronouns, 
are usually called “ Compound Personal Pronouns .” 

59. They are myself\ thyself , himself, herself , itself , and 
their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 

Note.—“ Himself and themselves are anomalous forms in which him and 
them are improperly used for his and their.’— Colegrove. 

60. These forms are either reflexive, or intensive, according 
as they are used to turn the action back upon the subject, or 



34 


ETYMOLOGY. 


merely for the sake of emphasis. Both uses are illustrated 
in the following sentence: 

“And I myself sometimes despise myself.” 

61. The simple forms may also be used reflexively; as, ‘I 
sit me down,’ ‘Get //whence,’ ‘ He hurt him badly’ (The 
last is ambiguous, however.) 

The Relative Pronouns. 

62 . The Relative Pronouns are those which also per¬ 
form the office of conjunctions. 

63. They are who, which , what , that, as, and but. 

64. As to the kinds of antecedents which the different 
relative pronouns may represent— 

1 . Who, in modern use, refers to persons or things 
personified, but formerly it was applied to lower ani¬ 
mals and lifeless objects. 

Examples.— Modern usage: —‘The man whom you saw,’ 
‘Such is the testimony of Mathematics, who is always a 
truthful witness.’ 

Older usage:— “A green and gilded snake .... who with 
her nimble head approached;” “The winds, who take the 
ruffian billows by the tops. ” 

2 . Which, in modern use, refers to inferior animals 
or lifeless objects, etc., but was formerly applied to per¬ 
sons. 

Examples.— Modern usage:— ‘The book which I study;’ 
‘You are to walk, which may fatigue you;’ ‘We know that 
all men are mortal, which means that all must die.’ 

Older usage :—“ Our Father which art in heaven.” 



ETYMOLOGY. 


35 


3. What, in modern use, refers to an antecedent 
which is generally omitted, but which may usually be 
determined without difficulty. It properly refers 
only to inferior animals or lifeless objects , etc. Its pos¬ 
sessive case, whose , is the same as that of who. 

Examples. —Modern usage:—‘A triangle whose sides are 
equal.’ 

“ What he bids, that [ J do.” 

“ What by duty’s voice is bidden, 

“ There where duty’s star may guide, 

Thither follow, that [ ] accomplish, 

Whatsoever else betide.”—T rench. 

Rem.—In these examples the antecedent of what is plainly some 
implied noun which, if expressed, would be modified by that. There 
is not the slightest ground for “expanding” what in either example. 
In the first three examples which follow, aught , matter , and nothing , 
are the expressed antecedents of what. In the last quotation, the 
antecedents of what are understood before speak and preach. 

Older usage :—“Offer them peace or aught what is beside.”— 
Peele. 

“ The matter what other men wrote.”— Ascham. 

“ 1 fear nothing 

What can be said against me.”—SHAKSPERE. 

“ What I tell you in darkness, that [ J speak ye in light; and 
what ye hear in the ear, that [ J preach ye upon the housetops.”— 
Matt. 

Rem. 1 .—In the oldest English, who , which, and what were inter¬ 
rogative pronouns, and the use of them as relatives is of later origin. 
The first two were generally sufficient when relatives were needed, and 



3$ 


ETYMOLOGY . 


what was sparingly employed. In modern English, as already stated, 
the antecedent of what (nominative case) is commonly suppressed, but 
whose (the possessive case) is the only possessive used when the ante¬ 
cedent denotes something inferior to man. 

Rem. 2.—Most authors teach that what is a “double” relative, 
comprising both a relative and its antecedent, or a modifier of the 
antecedent, equivalent to the (or that) thing which , the (or those) things 

which, the (or that) - which , all - which , etc. Some, in 

parsing, state that the word has a “double” construction. Others 
insist that the word should be “ expanded,” and the equivalents, in¬ 
stead of the word itself, parsed. Both methods are subject to criti¬ 
cism, in that the history and real use of the word are ignored. The 
second method of parsing the word is wholly indefensible, though it 
has the sanction of many able authors and teachers. It does not dis¬ 
pose of the word what at all, but of something which has been sub¬ 
stituted for it. The adverb safely may be equivalent to 1 in safety,’ or 
"‘with safetybut who would teach pupils to “expand” the adverb 
and parse its equivalents! 

Rein. 3.—No little fallacy lurks in the word “expanded” as here 
used, and many teachers who follow this method would reject it at 
once were the proper word used. By expanding any thing we obtain 
the same thing in an enlarged form—not one or two entirely different, 
though equivalent things. Don't may be expanded into do not , for it 
is a contraction of these two words. In the sentence ‘I won't do it,’ 
won't may be equivalent to, have firmly decided not to , but certainly can¬ 
not be expanded into these five words. What is doubtless equivalent 
to that which, but it is not a contraction of these words, and cannot be 
expanded into them. They may be “substituted” for what, but to 
say “substituted” instead of “expanded,” would make it impossible 
for any critical teacher to employ this method of disposing of the 
word. 

4. That, as a relative, may refer to persons, in- 





ETYMOLOGY. 


37 


ferior animals, or lifeless objects, etc., and may be re¬ 
placed by who or which. 

Examples.—' The man that toils/ 4 The tree that grows.’ 

The foregoing are sometimes called the "proper” relatives, for 
which ^j.and but are substitutes in certain relations. 

5 . A S, as a relative, may refer to persons, inferior ani¬ 
mals, or lifeless objects, etc., and is often preceded by such , 
same , or as many, as modifiers of its antecedent expressed 
or understood. It is not true, however, that the rela¬ 
tive as is always preceded by these words, nor that as is 
always a relative (as many authors affirm) when it is 
preceded by one of these “ signs.” 

Examples. — 4 Such persons as have been invited will be made wel¬ 
come ‘ This tree is of the same height as that one is‘As many 
f J as have tickets can obtain seats.’ 

Not a relative :—‘ Few people regard such conduct ^honorable ;’ 
* Some people may consider an act base, while others may regard the 
same as honorable;’ ‘ You think four problems a difficult task, but 
I have solved three times as many as a pastime.’ 

Rem —Some authors teach that as, in the sentence, ‘ 4 Give such 
things as you can spare,” “ may be treated as a relative pronoun,” but 
that by expanding the sentence as is seen to be a conjunctive adverb 

_« Give such things as those are which you can spare.” Suppose, 

however, that the or those be substituted for such , in either the original 
sentence or the expanded one, and it will be plain that as is merely a 
substitute for which or that. 

0 . But, as a relative, may refer to persons, inferior 
animals, or lifeless objects, etc., and always has a nega¬ 
tive force. 



38 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Examples. —“ There was not a man but did his best 

“ There is no fireside, howsoe’er defended, 

But has one vacant chair. ” 

In the first sentence, but is equal to who not; and in the second ? t equals which 
not or that not. 


“ Compound ” Relatives. 

65. When the adverbs so, ever, and soever are added to 
certain of the relative pronouns, the resulting forms are 
called Cotnpound Relative Protiouns. 

66 . The so called compounds are whoso, whoever, whosoever, 
whichever, whichsoever, what so, whatever, and whatsoever. 

Rem. 1. —As the effect of the suffixes is to extend or make inde¬ 
finite the application of the pronouns, the antecedents of these forms 
are not often expressed, and can seldom be determined with certainty. 
However, some general term may usually be employed as a virtual 
antecedent; and the difficulty of selecting such an antecedent for a 
relative pronoun whose form is simple, is frequently as great as when 
the relative is “ compound.” 

Example.— ‘ Whoever is honest is truthful.’ 

We cannot say just what the antecedent of whoever is. but “ per¬ 
son” may be taken as the implied antecedent. The antecedent of 
who in the sentence, “ Who steals my purse steals trash,” cannot be 
more definitely known. 

Rem. 2. —Some authors teach that these forms, as well as the rela¬ 
tive what are “double,” and are to be “expanded” in parsing and 
analysis. Thus, in the sentence, “ Whoever studies will learn,” who¬ 
ever is said to be equivalent to he who, or any one who,—he being the 
antecedent part, and who the relative. All the objections which have 
been offered to this method of disposing of what , are obviously appli¬ 
cable here, and need not be repeated. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


39 


67. As conjunctions, who and which are co-ordinative as 
well as subordinative, but the other relatives are always sub- 
ordinative. 

1. Who, as a conjunction, is used— 

1. To connect two co-ordinate sentences ; as, * I wrote a letter 
to my father, who replied immediately.’ 

In this sentence, who is equivalent to and he. 

2. To introduce a subordinate sentence which modifies the 
verb in the principal sentence; as, ‘ Why did you employ 
John, who is wholly incompetent ?’ 

In this sentence, who is equivalent to since he , or inasmuch as he , or 
seeing that he. 

3. To introduce a subordinate sentence intended to restrict, 
define, limit, or explain its antecedent; as, ‘ That is the 
man who gave the alarm.’ 

2 . Which, as a conjunction, is used in the same way as 
who. 

1. As a co-ordinative connective : * When young I studied 

grammar, which afterward I found a very important sub¬ 
ject.’ “ Caesar crossed the Rubicon, which was in the effect 
a declaration of war.” 

In these sentences, which is equivalent to and it. 

2. To introduce a sentence which modifies the verb in the 
principal sentence ; as, * Why did you not buy that house, 
which is one of the finest in the city ?’ 

In this sentence, which is equivalent to seeing that it , or inasmuch 
as it, or since it. 

3. As a restrictive or defining relative; as,‘ This is the letter 
which I received.’ 

3. The pronouns, that, as, and hut, are always sub¬ 
ordinative conjunctions. Each always introduces a 



40 


ETYMOLOGY. 


subordinate sentence intended to define, restrict, or 
explain the antecedent. 

Rem. —Formerly, the relatives who and which were, by careful 
writers, employed solely as co-ordinative connectives, and that was con¬ 
sidered the only proper restrictive relative. This distinction is no 
longer made, but many of our best grammarians believe that its ob¬ 
servance should be revived. Certain ambiguities would thus be 
avoided. For example, when one says, 1 1 wrote a letter to my 
brother, who lives in New York,’ we may not be able to determine 
whether the meaning is, ‘1 wrote a letter to my brother, and he lives in 
New York,’ or, 1 1 wrote a letter to my brother that lives in New York.’ 
Of course, if the sentence is written, the punctuation will indicate the 
kind of connective who is intended to be. 

The Interrogative Pronouns. 

68 . The Interrogative Pronouns are those which make, or 
help make, sentences interrogative. 

69. They are who , which , what , and whether. 

1 . WliO applies to persons only, and supposes entire ig¬ 
norance as to what the answer will be, as ‘Who is that?’ 

2. Which applies to both persons and things, and inquires 
for the specific individual or individuals of a known class or 
group; as, ‘Which is the man ?’ 

3. What applies exclusively to things. “ It may be 
called by pre-eminence the interrogative of knowledge, or the 
expression of a desire to be informed respecting some part 
of the world.”— Bain. 

Examples :—‘What is man?’ ‘What is lightning?’ ‘What 
causes the tides?’ 



ETYMOLOGY. 


41 


4. Whether, as a pronoun, is now obsolete. It formerly- 
applied to both persons and things, and inquired, ‘which one 
of two,’ as, “ Whether of them twain did the will of his father ? ” 

CAUTION. 

Care should be taken not to confound indirect interrogative pronouns 
with relatives. In such expressions as, ‘ I know what the difficulty is,’ 
‘ I learned who broke the window,’ ‘ I saw which was the better man,* 
and the like, who, which , and what are indirect interrogative pronouns, 
not relatives. 

“In most doubtful cases, the two [the relative, and the interrogative what], 
may be distingnished by the sign. ever. The relative what will take ever after it 
without marring the sense, the interrogative what will not admit the suffix, ever." 
—Holbrook. 

Strictly speaking, Mr. Holbrook’s statement is not correct. It is 
true that relative pronouns may be compounded, while interrogative 
pronouns never are, but adding ercr to relatives will often “mar,” or 
change, the sense very much. For example, ‘William asks what I 
cannot grant,’ is not the same as, ‘William asks whatever I cannot 
grant.’ 

Perhaps it is better to say, the relative pronouns, who , which and 
what , will take the suffix EVER, and make sense, but the interrogatives 
will not. 

The best guide to the nature*of these pronouns, however, is the sense 
of the expressions in which they occur. 

III. Modifications. 

70. Pronouns have the modifications of Persofi, Number, 
Gender, and Case. 

71. Person is the modification of pronouns and verbs 



42 


ETYMOLOGY. 


which indicates whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or 
the person or thing spoken of, is meant. 

72. There are three persons, the First Person, the Second 
Person, and the Third Person. 

73. The First Person is the form of a pronoun (or 
verb) which indicates the speaker. 

74 . The Second Person is the form which indicates the 
person spoken to. 

75. The Third Person is the form which indicates the 
person or thing spoken of. 

In the discussion of Number, Gender, and Case, already given under 
nouns, the nature of these modifications was explained. The defini¬ 
tions and statements there given need not be repeated in this place, as 
any formal changes which may be necessary to adapt them to pro¬ 
nouns can easily be made. In addition to the nominative and the 
possessive case of nouns, pronouns have also an objective case. 

76. The Objective Case is the form which usually indi¬ 
cates that the pronoun is the object either of a transitive 
verb in the active voice, or of a preposition, or that it is used 
adverbially, or is the subject of an infinitive. 


IT. Declension of Pronouns 
1. The Personal Pronoun : 


{ Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


{ 


Singular. 

I 

My or Mine 
Me 


Our or Ours 
Us 


Plural. 

We 


Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

( Nom.-* Thou 

2d Person. ■< Poss.-* Thy or Thine 


Obj.-* Thee 


Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 


You You or Ye 

Your or Yours 




* Supplied by the ordinary style, plural, 
f Supplied by the nominative. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


43 


Masculine. Feminine. Neuter . 

(Nom. He She It Thev 

3d Person. < Poss. His Her or Hers Its Their or Theirs 

( Obj. Him-K -1 Them 

Rem. I .—Mine and thine are simply old forms of my and thy. 

Rem. 2.— Ours, yours , theirs, and hers are “double genitives,” or 
strengthened forms which our,your, their , and her respectively assume 
when the modified nouns are omitted. 

Rem. 3.— The Personal Pronoun has distinct forms for each of the 
three grammatical persons. It has distinct forms for the singular and 
the plural numbers in the first and third persons. In the second per¬ 
son, ordinary style, the singular number is wholly wanting, but the 
solemn style shows both numbers. The distinction oi gender is seen 
in the third person singular. The objective case is wanting (i) in the 
second person, except the solemn style, singular; and (2) the feminine 
and the neuter genders of the third person, singular; but elsewhere 
the distinction of case is fully sustained. 

Consult the foregoing paradigm, and verify these statements. 

2. The Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. 

1. Who has three cases— Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. 
whom —but does not have gender, person, or number. 

2. Which and that have no modifications, but whose is 
employed where the relation calls for the possessive case of 
those words. In parsing, they should be considered as in the 
nominative case. (Why?) 

3. What (nominative) has a true possessive case, whose, 
which is in form the same as the possessive case of who. It 
has no other modifications. 


f Supplied by the nominative. 

Supplied by the first form of possessive. 






44 


ETYMOLOGY. 


4 - As, but, and whether have no modifications, but 
should be considered as in the nominative case. (Why ?) 

77. A pronoun should agree with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender, as far as possible; as, John has lost his 
book; Boys, study your lessons. 

Rem.—The principle is usually stated thus: “A pronoun agrees 
with its antecedent in person, number, and gender’” If every pronoun 
had a complete set of persons, numbers, and gender-forms, and no 
speaker or writer ever made a mistake, this rule would be accurately 
stated— and useless. In the following discussion, the principles relating 
to the proper forms to be used will be stated, as if every pronoun had 
all the forms mentioned. The student will supply the words “ if pos¬ 
sible ” whenever necessary. 

Peculiarities and Exceptions. 

As to Person! 

1. When two or more connected terms differing as to person are 
used as the compound antecedent of a pronoun, the pronoun should 
take the first person if any term is in the first person ; but the second 
person, if any term is in the second person, and no term is in the first; 
as, He and I have lost our hats; You, HE, and I have lost our hats; 
You and HE have lost your hats. 

2. Similarly, if the expressed or implied antecedent is a noun 
plural in meaning, the pronoun should take the first person, if the 
speaker is included; but should take the second person if the person 
spoken to is included and the speaker is not; as, We have recited our 
lessons; You have recited your lessons. 

As to Number. 

1. Antecedent a collective noun in the singular number. 

(a) If the noun is singular in meaning, the pronoun should be sin- 




ETYMOLOGY. 


45 


gular; as, The herd is very large. Have you seen it? The jury is 
in its place. 

(b) If the noun refers to the individuals composing the collection, 
the pronoun should be plural; as, The HERD were very timid, and we 
were at great pains not to frighten them ; The JURY have agreed upon 
their verdict. 

Rem.—The Solecisms, Every person should attend to their 
own business, Let every one study their lessons, etc., illustrate the 
tendency to employ a plural pronoun when the antecedent, though 
singular, is general. 

2. Antecedent plural in form but singular in meaning. 

In this case the pronoun should be singular; as, Young’s Night 
Thoughts is in its place on the shelf. 

3. Two or more comiected terms used as the compound antecedent. 

(a) If the terms are connected by and , and each term refers to a 
separate thing, the pronoun should generally be plural; as, John and 
James have studied their lessons; Boys and girls should obey their 
parents. 

(b) If the terms are singular and taken distributively, the pronouns 
should be singular; as, Every farmer, mechanic, and carrier 
should know that he is a productive laborer. 

4. Editors, kings and other potentates, and occasionally, authors, 
use we in alluding to themselves. 

“The plural style is said to have been first used by King John of England; 
according to others by Richard I. The French and German sovereigns followed 
the example about the beginning of the thirteenth century.”— Century Diction¬ 
ary. 

The reason commonly assigned for this use by editors and authors 
is, that the use of /would have the appearance of egotism ; but surely 
the writer’s egotism, if he have any, is not atoned for by the adoption 
of a pedantic solecism. 





46 


ETYMOLOGY. 


As to Gender. 

1. Antecedent a collective noun in the singular. 

The pronoun should be of the neuter gender unless the noun refers 
to the individuals composing the collection, when the pronoun should 
be plural, and of course would not have a gender form. 

2. When the antecedent denotes a person, but does not have gender, 
and the sex cannot be otherwise inferred, or is unimportant, the pro¬ 
noun should take the masculine form; as, Every one [ j should 
study his lesson; Each PERSON will receive his mail at the office; 
He that will not work shall not eat. 

3. Antecedents composed of two or 7 nore singular nouns taken dis- 
tributively , and denoting different sexes. 

In this case, as the English language does not have the singular 
number and common gender, much embarrassment results. Usage 
differs, (a) Many writers sacrifice number. 

Examples.—Every boy and girl should study their lessons; 
“ Every person’s happiness depends in part on the respect they meet 
in the world.”— Paley. “ Then shalt thou bring forth that man or 
that'woMAN unto thy gates, and thou shalt stone them with stones till 
they shall die.”— Bible. “ My lord says that NOBODY wears their own 
hair.”— Thackeray. “Not on outward charms should man or 
woman build their pretentions to please.”— Opie. 

This usage has the approval of several noted grammarians, includ¬ 
ing Bain, from whose Higher English Grammar the foregoing exam¬ 
ples are taken. (b) By most authors two rules are prescribed: (1) 
Avoid this difficulty if possible, even recasting the sentence to escape 
from the dilemma; (2) When it is impossible to avoid it, use “ he or 
she,” “his or her,” or “him or her ,” thus, Every boy or girl should 
study his or her lesson. 



CHAPTER IV. 


ADJECTIVES. 

I. Definition. 

Adjective : Latin, adjectivus — that is added. 

79. An adjective is a word used principally to modify a 
noun or something which has the construction of a noun. 

“ A word used with a noun, or substantive, to explain a quality of 
the thing named, or something attributed to it, or to limit or define 
it, or to specify or describe a thing, as distinct from something else.”— 
International Dictionary. 

To say that an adjective limits a noun or pronoun is to stop far short of the whole 

truth. 


II. Classification. 

80. Adjectives are classified as Definitive and Descriptive. 

81. Definitive Adjectives are those which specify or 
limit ; as, ‘ 1 'hat man ‘ The fourth paragraph 1 Every day.’ 

82. Definitive Adjectives have the sub-classes, Articles , 
Numerals , and Pronominals. 

83. The Articles are the words the and a (or an) when 
placed before nouns to limit their signification. 

84. The is called the Definite Article , and is used (i) to 


47 



48 


ETYMOLOGY. 


designate or specify a general conception; (2) to limit more or 
less definitely, or (3) to personify or individualize a species. 

85. A (or ail) is called the Indefinite Article , and signifies 
one or any, but less emphatically. 

86 . The Numeral Adjectives are those definitive ad¬ 
jectives which are used in numbering and counting. 

87. A Cardinal Numeral is one which tells how many , 
as, one, tivo, three, etc. 

88 . An Ordinal Numeral is one which tells the position 
of an object as a number of a series ; as, first , second', third, etc. 

89. The Pronomiual Adjectives are all definitive ad¬ 
jectives except articles and numeral adjectives. 

90. A Demonstrative Pronominal is one which points 
out definitely ; as, this, that, both, etc. 

91. A Distributive Pronominal is one which repre¬ 
sents each object of a group as taken separately ; as, each, 
every, either , etc. 

92. A 11 Interrogative Pronominal is one which may 
make, or help make a sentence interrogative ; as, f What 
money have you ?’ s Which book do you like ? ’ 

93. A 11 Indefinite Pronominal is one that specifies or 
refers to objects in a general way, either in groups or singly, 
but without pointing out with particularity; as, all, some, 
many, much, etc. 

94. Descriptive Adjectives are those which describe 
the object signified by the modified term. 

95. Descriptive Adjectives have the sub-classes Quali¬ 
tative and Material. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


49 


96. A Qualitative Adjective is one which expresses 
some quality of the object ; as, good, tall, indolent. 

97. A Material Adjective is one which suggests the ma¬ 
terial of which the object is composed ; as, wooden, woolen, 
watery, inky, brassy. 

98. The following sub-classes, though not obtained by 
logical division, are sometimes mentioned : 

1. Proper Adjectives, or those derived from proper nouns; as, 
French, English, Spanish, etc. 

2. Participial Adjectives, or those derived from, or having the 
form of, participles; as,‘ The singing bird,’ ‘The murmuring brook ’ ; 
also, resplendent, confident. 

3. Periodical Adjectives, or those derived from names of periods 
of time; as, daily , hourly, annual, etc. 

4. Replicative Adjectives, or those expressing repetition; as, 
single, double, triple , etc. 

5 . Multiplicative Adjectives, or those which tell how many fold ; 
as, twofold, threefold, duplex , duplicate, etc. 

6. Combinational Adjectives, or those derived from names of 
combinations; as , triangular, heptagonal, quadrilateral, etc. 

III. Modifications. 

Comparison. 

99. Comparison is the modification of adjectives and 
adverbs, by which difference in the degree of what is denoted 
by the adjective or adverb is indicated. 

100. There are said to be three degrees of comparison, 
the Positive Degree, the Comparative Degree, and the Super¬ 
lative Degree. 



5 ° 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Some authors add the Diminutive Degree. 

101. The Positive Degree is the simplest, or unin¬ 
flected, form of the adjective ; as, young, good, authentic, etc. 

102. The Comparative Degree is the form which ex¬ 
presses more or less, “ as reckoned from some other condi¬ 
tion or quality of the same object or of a different object 
as, younger, better, more authentic, less authentic. 

103. The Superlative Degree is the form which ex¬ 
presses the quality in the highest or lowest degree that can 
exist within a group or class of objects ; as, youngest, best, 
most authentic, least authentic. 

104. The Diminutive Degree is the form which ex¬ 
presses subordinate or indistinct quality, and is formed by 
adding ish to the positive ; as, bluish, brackish. 

REGULAR COMPARISON. 

105. Adjectives regularly form the comparative degree by 
adding er to the positive. 

Note. —The rules of spelling are observed: (1) Final e silent 
is omitted; (2) Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to i, 
and (3) A final consonant preceded by a short accented vowel is 
doubled. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

106. Sometimes the comparatives and superlatives are 
not formed from the positive, but from some word now obso¬ 
lete, as good (or well), better, best. 

The positive of better is bet or bat, from which the comparative and superlative 
forms (originally beteta and bet(e)st) are derived regularly. 



ETYMOLOGY . 


51 


107. Some adjectives take the superlative ending most; 
as, aft, after, aftermost. 

108. Sometimes a contraction gives rise to two forms of 
the superlative ; as, late, later, latest or last; fore, former, fore¬ 
most or first. 

109. Sometimes one or more forms are wanting; as, top, 
-, topmost. 

To this class belong certain adjectives ending in ior (Latin compar¬ 
ative), which do not have the positive and superlative; as, junior, 
anterior, prior. 


PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON. 

no. When the adjective has more than two syllables, or 
is a compound word, the comparison usually takes place by 
means of more and most, to denote increase of quality, and less 
and least to denote decrease of quality. 

Rem. 1 .—The adjectives in such cases should be considered as com¬ 
plex. 

Rem. 2—“ This substitute for the regular comparison dates from 
the 13 th century, and has made its way largely by being a useful help 
toward euphony.”—B ain. 

Rem. 3.—Adjectives are sometimes put in the possessive case: 

1 . When the modified noun is omitted, but would be put in the 
possessive case if expressed; as, Bear ye one another's burdens. 

2. When the modified noun precedes the adjective and is in a 
construction calling for the possessive case ; as, This is my hat, 
and nobody else's hat. 

Note.—I n the last example nobody modifies hat , denoting ownership, and would 
take the possessive case if else 1 s were omitted. 




52 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Rem. 4.— A very few adjectives have number; as, this-these , that- 
those , other-others , etc. 

EXERCISES. 

Direction.—Arrange in tabular form the different degrees of the 
following adjectives : 

worse, far , further , former , late , 

old, inmost, out, upper, under, hither, over, after , 

nether, down , top, north, northern , south , southern . 

Illustration— 


POSITIVE. 

COMPARATIVE. 

SUPERLATIVE. 

good (bet), 

better, 

best, 

bad,) 

ill, f 

worse, 

worst, 

far, 

farther, 

farthest, 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 










CHAPTER V. 


VERBS. 

I. Definition. 

Verb : Latin, verbum — word. 

“ The name was given to this class of words because it was thought that the 
assertive element was the pre-eminent word in the sentence.”— Wklsh. 

111. A Verb is a word used to express action or the 
suffering of an action, or being or state of being. 

112. The Subject of a verb is the word, or combination 
of words, denoting that concerning which the verb expresses, 
being or state of being, or action or the suffering of an 
action ; as, ‘ John walks; ‘ The boy whom you saw is my 
brother,’ ‘ John and James returned: 

Rem.—In parsing, if the subject is complex or compound, it is customary to call 
the base of the subject the subject of the verb. 

113. The Object of a verb is the word, or combination 
of words, denoting that which receives the act expressed by 
the verb ; as, ‘John struck James,’ ‘ I closed the door.’ (See 
Article 276, Rem. 4.) 

Rem.—In parsing, if the object is complex or compound, the base is called the 

object. 


53 



54 


ETYMOLOGY. 


113. The Principal Parts of a verb are those from 
which the other parts or forms are derived, viz.: 

1. The Present Tense, ) 

2. The Past Tense ( active—indicative—first—singular. 

3. The Present Participle, 

4. The Past Participle. 

II. Classification. 

114. As to form, verbs are Regular or Irregular. 

115. A Regular Yerb is one whose past tense and past 
participle are by inflection made to end in ed. 

116. An Irregular Yerb is one whose past tense and 
past participle do not, on account of inflection, end in ed. 

Rem. 1 .—The syllable ed is sometimes shortened into t. 

Rem. 2 .—Sometimes the past tense and the past participle of the 
regular verbs are formed by adding ed to the present, as walk-ed; 
sometimes only d is added, as love-d. 

Rem. 3 .—Sometimes the past tense and the past participle are 
made to end in ed by merely omitting a vowel; as, feed—fed, lead- 
led, etc. In the case of flee, the ending ed is obtained by omitting the 
final vowel and adding d. Under the foregoing definitions, therefore, 
these verbs are irregular. Would it not be better to base the classifi¬ 
cation upon results instead of processes, and include among the regu¬ 
lar verbs all verbs whose past tense and past participle end in ed 1 

Rem. 4 .—The two classes of verbs (Regular and Irregular) repre¬ 
sent very imperfectly the classes “ Weak ” and “Strong,” to be met in 
the more thorough works on grammar. 

The 44 Weak ” verbs are those which form their past tense and past 
participle in -d, -ed, or -t. They include all the derivative and bor¬ 
rowed verbs in the language. 




ETYMOLOGY. 


55 


The “Strong” verbs form their past tense by modifying the vowel 
of the present tense, and their past participle ends (or did end) in -n, 
or -en. 

(A List of Irregular Verbs will be found on pages 86,87, 88, 89.) 

117. As to use, verbs are classified as Transitive and In¬ 
transitive. 

118. A Transitive Yerb is one which requires an object. 

Not, however, “to complete its meaning,’ or “to make the statement com¬ 
plete,” or to denote “ that upon which the act terminates,” but because such verbs 
imply that such a modifier is to be used. 

Rem.—The object may, or may not be expressed; as, ‘ The house 
which 1 built ,’ ( The house [ ] I built.’ 

But in the following sentences the verbs are different: ‘ The boy 

can read\i\s essay, 1 ‘ The boy can read well.’ No object is understood 
in the second sentence, for the meaning of read as there used is ‘ to 
peruse something written or printed ,’ or, ‘ to utter cdoud the words of some¬ 
thing written or printed: In the first sentence read means, ‘to peruse ,’ 

‘ to utter aloud: 

119. An Intransitive Yerb is one which cannot take an 
object. 

Rem. 1.—A verb usually intransitive may become transitive:—( 1 ) 
When made to govern a cognate object— i. e., an object which repeats 
in a noun form the idea involved in the verb; as, * I dreame.d a dream. 
(2) When used in a causative sense ; as, ‘ The boy flies his kite.’ No 
preposition is “ understood"’ before dream in the first sentence. It 
would be nonsense to say that the meaning is, ‘ He dreamed in or with 
a dream.’ 

120. When the verb to be expresses the inclusion of the 



56 


ETYMOLOGY. 


thing denoted by its subject in something denoted by some 
other word, or combination of words, it is called tlie copula. 

121. The word, or words, denoting that in which the sub¬ 
ject is included is called the complement. 

Examples. 

1. The subject subordinate to the complement:— 

‘ Horses are quadrupeds.' . 

2. The subject and the complement coextensive:— 

* Nouns are names.' . 

Rem. 1.— Of course, when the verb is modified by the adverb not , 
the sentence denies that the subject is included in the complement. 
In that case the relation between the subject and complement is that 
of exclusion, which can also be illustrated graphically; 
as, ‘ Nouns are not verbs.' . 

Rem. 2. Sometimes the base of the subject must 
be restricted; as, Some quadrupeds are horses. 

If the larger circle represents quadrupeds, and the smaller, horses, 
the diagram illustrates the truth of the statement; but it also shows 
that the statement would not be true if the word some 
were omitted. 

Again, take the sentence, Some men are authors. 

If of the two circles, M represents men and A represents authors, 
the diagram illustrates the truth of the statement, and also shows that 
the statement would not be true if some were omitted. 














ETYMOLOGY. 


57 


But the diagram also shows that the “ some men" who are authors 
do not comprise all authors ; and this is true, since some women are 
authors. 

Rem. 8.—The verb be (in its conjugated forms) is the only pure 
copula, but seem , appear , and become are sometimes said to be copulas. 
This is not strictly true, for seem and appear obviously do not imply 
that the subjeqt is included in the complement; and the verb become 
implies more than this. It signifies ‘'come or grow to be." Still, it is 
customary in such expressions as, He seems a friend , He appears honest , 
He became a teacher , etc., to treat the verbs as copulas, and the words 
that follow them as complements. 

Rem. 4 .—The complement may be a noun, pronoun , adjective , verb 
(infinitive or participle ), preposition and its object , or a subordinate sen¬ 
tence. In parsing, if the complement is complex or compound, the 
base of the complement is usually called the complement. 

Examples.—‘ The man is my friendj' ‘If I wer cyouj ' 1 The apples 
are large;' * To die is to sleep; ' ‘ Educating children is developing their 
powers; ’ ‘ In the room is within the room; ' * My belief is that he will 
succeed; ' ‘ I do not know why yet I live to say, ‘ This thing’s to do.' 

Directions.—Point out the subject and the complement; and state 
whether, in the first eight sentences, the subject is subordinate to the 
complement, or coextensive with it. Illustrate the different relations 
of subjects and complements, using circles as shown above. 

i. Men are mortal. 2. A good name is a fortune. 3. Are you a 
student ? 4. I may be one who is chosen. 5. When are two triangles 
similar ? 6. We shall be industrious. 7. May this be my seat ? 8. A 

triangle is a polygon bounded by three sides. 9. We are not your ene¬ 
mies. 10. You are not the man. 11. Some persons are not honest. 
12. This book is not my geography. 13. Many books are not interest¬ 
ing. 14. The question is, What can be done ? 15. Some of the apples 

on this tree are not ripe. 16. The man appears friendly. 17. This 
man seems excited, l8. We object to his being a lawyer. 19. His 



58 


ETYMOLOGY. 


appearing young is no reason for believing that he is incompetent. 20. 
The man became my friend. 21. No men are immortal. 22. Some 
people are dishonest. 23. Whatever is, is right. 24. What must be, 
will be. 25. Do you know who he is? 26. Not to be honest, is not to 
be respectable. 27. I do not know what the matter is. 28. How many 
there are in this world who are not contented ! 

Directions.—Illustrate by means of diagrams the defects in the 
following statements. Make the necessary changes to express the truth 
in each case. 

1. Men are good scholars. 2. Books are leather-bound volumes. 
3. Signs of thought are words. 4. Good readers are moral. 5. Poor 
readers are good singers. 6. Tornadoes are destructive of human life. 
7. Those who study grammar are correct speakers; John is a person 
who studies grammar; therefore John is a correct speaker. 8. Light 
is opposed to darkness; sponge is light; hence sponge is opposed to 
darkness. 9. Diseases are fatal; toothache is a disease; hence tooth¬ 
ache is fatal. 10. All men are mortal; all horses are mortal; therefore 
all horses are men. 11. All debtors are dishonest; John is a debtor; 
hence John is dishonest. 12. Some good readers are good singers; 
Charles is a good reader; therefore Charles is a good singer. 13. Six 
is a half dozen ; two and four are six; therefore either four or two is a 
half dozen. 14. All the books in my library are a hundred volumes; 
this arithmetic is a book in my library; hence this book is a hundred 
volumes. 15. Some men are dishonest; Charles and Henry are some 
men; therefore they are dishonest. 16. A swallow is a bird; the water 
in this glass is a swallow; hence the water in this glass is a bird. 

122. As to structure, verbs are classified as Simple and 
Co??iplex. 

123. A Simple Yerb is one which consists of a single 
word ; as, I speak , John writes , The rain descended. 




ETYMOLOGY. 


59 


124. A Complex Yerb is one which consists of two or 
more words ; as, I shall come, You may have heard the sound, 
I shall have been informed. 

125. As to relative importance, the parts of a complex 
verb are Principal and Auxiliary . 

126. The Principal Yerb is the base of a complex 
verb ; as, come, heard, and informed, in the foregoing exam¬ 
ples. 

127. Auxiliary Yerbs are those used in the conjuga¬ 
tion of other verbs to help express the different modifications. 

128. List of auxiliary verbs— Do, be, have, shall, will, 
may, can, must. 

Rem. 1 .—Historically, the auxiliary verbs were themselves prin¬ 
cipal verbs, followed by the infinitives and participles of what are now 
called the principal verbs. 

Rem. 2.— Do, be, have, will, and can, are also used as principal 
verbs. 

Direction.—Write sentences illustrating the use of these verbs as 
principal verbs. Be sure to consult the dictionary for the meaning of 
can. 

Discussion of the Auxiliary Yerbs. 

129 . Do, as an auxiliary verb, has the forms do, does , dost, doth, 
did, and didst. It is really transitive, the principle verb in the infini¬ 
tive form being its object. It is employed to form the emphatic style, 
in the present and past tenses of the indicative mode, and the present 
and present perfect tenses of the imperative mode. (See second table 
of conjugations ) 

Rem. 1 .— The emphatic style does not always express emphasis. 
It is used— 



6o 


ETYMOLOGY. 


1. In interrogative and negative expressions ; as, (i) Do you see this 
pencil ? (2) I did not find my book. 

2. In imperative sentences ; as, Do not retreat; Do you go. 

3. To express emphasis; as, I do wish you would be quiet; He did 
say it. 

4. For metrical or other effect; as, He writes as if joy did make 
him write ; This just reproach their virtue does excite. 

Rem. 2 .—Some authors teach that do is a substitue for the princi¬ 
pal verb, in such expressions as, “ Remain quiet; unless you do , I shall 
punish you.” It seems more reasonable, however, to believe that 
there is merely an ellipsis of the principal verb, or that the word do 
itself is the principal verb: Thus, “Unless you do [ remain quiet],” 
“ Unless you do {this thing]” or “ Unless you do [so]” 

ldO. Be. as an auxiliary verb, is used to form the passive voice and 
the progressive style of other verbs. (See Article 154, Rem. 2; and 
Article 162, Rem. 1.) 

131 . Have, as an auxiliary verb, has the forms, have, hast, hath, 
had, hadst, and having. 

It is used to form all the “ perfect,” or secondary tenses. 

Rein.—In such expressions as, I had rather go, You had better stay , 
etc., had is not a substitute for would , but is the principal verb (in the 
past tense, with an indefinite force). Go and stay are infinitives whose 
signs are omitted. 

In the expressions, Td rather go, You'd better stay , He'd sooner steal 
than starve, etc., ’d may represent either had or would. 

Note—For full explanations of the idioms had rather, had better , etc., see 
Century Dictionary 

132 . SliaT and will are used to form the future and future perfect 
tenses. 

133 . Shall has the forms, shall, shall, should , and shouldst. 

134 . Will as an auxiliary verb, has the forms, will, wilt,would, and 
wouldst. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


61 


135. In the ordinary style, shall is used as the auxiliary in the first 
person, and will in the second and third; in the emphatic style, will 
is used in the first person, and shall in the second and third. 

136. May and Can are used to form the present, past, present per¬ 
fect, and past perfect, tenses of the potential mode. 

137. May has the forms, may , mayest or mayst , might and, might- 
est or mightst. 

138. Can has the forms, can, canst , could, and couldst. 

139. May expresses permission, possibility, or concession; as, I 
may go= I have permission to go, or, possibly I shall go. Placed before 
the subject, may denotes a wish ; as, May you prosper. 

140. Can expresses power ; as, I can go=I am able to go. 

141. Must is used in forming the present and the present perfect 
tenses of the potential mode. 

142. Must has only one form. It denotes compulsion, or cer¬ 
tainty ; as, He must work, He must have society, It must be so. 

143. As to the number of principal parts, verbs are classi¬ 
fied as Complete , Redundant , and Defective. 

144. A Complete Yerb is one which has the regular 
number of principal parts, (i.e.four) and but one form for 
each ; as, the verb to see ; pp. see—saw—seeing—seen. 

145. A Redundant Yerb is one which has duplicate 
forms in the past tense or past participle ; as, cleave; pp. 
cleave — cleft , clove or clave — cleaving — cleft , or cloven. 

146. A Defective Yerb is one which lacks one or more 
of the principal parts. They are the auxiliary verbs shall , 
may, caw, and must , and the verbs beware , ought , quoth , wist, and 
wit. 

147. Methinks , meseems , etc., are sometimes included, but they 
are hardly to be classed as verbs, being merely consolidated forms of 




62 


ETYMOLOGY. 


verb and subject. Detach the subject, and the verbs are complete. 

148. Certain verbs which are used in the third person 
only are sometimes called Impersonal (or Uni-personal) 
Yerbs ; as, rain, snow, hail , etc. 

Examples of use : * It rains,' 1 It snows,' etc. 

Exercises. 

Directions.—Classify the verbs in the following sentences. Point 
out the subject. Point out the objects of such verbs as are transitive. 
Point out the complements of all copulas, and state whether the sub¬ 
jects are subordinate to, or coextensive with the complements. Ex¬ 
press the relation graphically : 

1. The apple is ripe. 2. The boy plays marbles. 3. Men sail 
around the world. 4. Evil actions live in brass. 5. The hero's 
blood is not to be controlled. 6. I am acquainted with John. 7. 
There died my father, no man's debtor. 8. Do you hope to return ? 
9. I dare do all that may become a man. 10. Use makes practice 
ea^y, and practice begets custom, and a habit of things, n. This 
was a saying of Pythagoras: “ Those are our friends that reprimand 
us, not those who flatter us.” 12. Many remain beginners all their 
lives, because they have no confidence. 13. The great controversy 
between Episcopalians and Presbyterians was, by what authority 
orders are received. 14. The good, the sensible, and the modest are 
seldom offended. 15. Where statesmen are ruled by faction and 
interest, they can have no zeal for the glory of their country. 16. 
Gold can make its way through the midst of guards, and break 
through the strongest barriers. 17. Cromwell said i “The king is a 
man of great parts and great understanding.” 18. All other debts 
may compensation find ; but love is strict, and must be paid in kind. 

III. Modifications. 

149. The modifications of verbs are Style, Voice, Mode, 
Tense, Person, and Number. 




ETYMOLOGY. 


63 


Style. 

150. Style, as a modification of verbs, has reference to 
their general form. 

151. There are four kinds of style :—The Ordinary , the 
Solemn, the Progressive, and the Emphatic. 

Some authors add the Interrogative Style. 

152. Tlie Ordinary Style is that commonly used in speak¬ 
ing and writing ; as, ‘ I study,' ‘You may go,' ‘ He has been here.' 

153. The Solemn Style is the old Ordinary Style ; as, 
‘Thou art; ‘Thou maystgo,' ‘Thou walkedst.' 

Kern. 1 .—The Solemn Style differs from the Ordinary Style only 
in the second and third person of the singular number, and is distin¬ 
guished by the endings t, or st in the second person and th, or eth in 
the third person, as will be shown under Conjugation. 

Rem. 2.— The Solemn Style is used in the Bible, among the Society 
of Friends, and frequently in grave discourse and in poetry. 

154. The Progressive Style is the style that denotes 
the act or state as continuing. 

Rem. 1 .— The auxiliary verbs (when used as auxiliaries) and the verb 
be (copulative) have no progressive style. 

Rem. 2.— The Progressive Style is made by adding the present 
participle of the principal verb to the appropriate mode, tense, person, 
and number, of the verb be. By adding the present active participle 
to the verb be, we obtain active progressive style ; and by adding the 
present passive participle, we obtain the passive progressive style. 

155. The Emphatic Style is the style which denotes 
emphasis. It has two forms, the Ordinary Emphatic , and the 
Sole?nn Emphatic. 



6 4 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Rem. 1 .—The following forms may be made emphatic: (i) The 
present and the past tenses of the indicative and the subjunctive 
modes, active voice, of all verbs except be. (2) The imperative mode 
and the future and future perfect tenses, both voices, of all verbs. 

Rem. 2 .—The Emphatic Style is made by using do , did , dost , doth, 
and didst before certain forms of the principal verb; and by transpos¬ 
ing shall and will in the future and future perfect tenses, as will be 
shown under Conjugation. 

156. Tlie Interrogative Style is the form which indi¬ 
cates that a question is intended. 

Rem.— The “ Interrogative Style” is merely an arrangement of the 
parts of the sentence, including the verb and its.subject. Each of the 
four styles may be made interrogative by using the verb, or some part 
of it, before the subject. 

Yoice. 

157. Yoice is the modification of verbs to indicate the 
relation between the verb and its subject. 

158. English verbs have two voices, the Active and the 
Passive. 

Rein.— In some other languages, verbs have also a “ Middle Voiced to 
denote that the doer of an act also receives it. In English, the active 
voice and a reflexive pronoun are used for this purpose ; as, He hurt 
himself. 

159. An Active Form is one which, in the case of verbs 
expressing action, usually implies that the person or thing 
denoted by the subject does the act expressed by the verb ; 
as, ‘ Merchants sell goods,’ ‘ He may have done this.’ 

160. The Active Yoice of a verb is the aggregate of its 
active forms. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 


Rem. 1.—All verbs may have this form, and most intransitive verbs 
are never used in the passive. 

Rem. 2 .—The subject of.a verb in the active voice does not always 
designate the actor. (1) Many verbs, including some which are transi¬ 
tive as well as some' whi'ch are in transitive,‘do* not express action ; as, 
“ A son owes help and support to his-father,” “ Divine contemplations 
exceed the pleasures of sense,” 1 The book lies on the table.’ ‘ The old 
man rests in his easy chair.’ (2) Sometimes a verb expressing action 
is passive in sense though active in form; as, ‘ Peaches sell at a dollar 
a bushel,’‘ This wagon draws easily.’ 

161. A Passive Form is one which, in the case of verbs 
expressing action, usually implies that the thing denoted by 
the subject receives the act expressed by the verb: i. e. } that 
the subject is also the object of the verb; as, ‘ The door was 
shut ,’ ‘ The boy has been educated ‘I might have been in¬ 
formed of this.’ 

162. The Passive Yoice of a verb is the aggregate of 
its passive forms. 

Rem. 1.—The passive voice is made by adding the past active 
participle of the principal verb to the conjugated verb be. Any passive 
form may be made by adding the past active participle of the princi¬ 
pal verb to the appropriate style, mode, tense, person, and number of 
the verb be. All verbs, regardless of meaning, are in the passive voice 
when they have this form. When they do not have this form, they are 
in the active voice, regardless of the meaning they convey. The past 
active participle-, when used participially, is always passive in meaning. 
(See Rem. 2, under Article 160.) 

Rem. 2 .—A verb which is in the passive voice does not always imply 
that the subject denotes that which receives the act; as, ‘ The melan¬ 
choly days are come. 1 ‘They were gone 1 ( He was presented with a 
gold-headed cane.’ 



66 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Rem. 8. In the sentences, ‘ He was laughed at/ ‘ The matter has 
been looked into/ ‘ It shall be attended to/ etc., the verbs though intran¬ 
sitive are in the passive voice. The prepositions are not parts of the 
verbs. 

163. When a verb in the active voice is changed to the 
passive voice, the following important facts are to be noted: 

1 . The Subject of the active verb may, or may not be retained. 
If retained, it usually becomes an adverbial modifier of the passive 
verb, and the preposition by is used to show the relation; as, 

j (Active) ‘John shut the door.’ 

I (Passive) ‘The door was shut by John. } 

2 . If the verb is transitive, the object of the active verb usually 
becomes the subject of the passive verb, as shown in the foregoing 
example. To this principle there are the following exceptions: 

( 1 ) The Indirect Object of the active verb may become the subject 
of the passive verb, and the object become an adverbial modifier of 
the passive verb, with or without a preposition to show the relation; as, 

( (Active) They presented him [indirect object] a book [object]. 

•< j A book was presented him (or to him). 

( ^ ASSIVE ) j He was presented a book (or with a book). 

(2) The Factitive Object of the active verb may become the sub¬ 
ject of the passive verb, and the object become an adverbial modifier 
of the passive verb, with a preposition to show the relation; as, 

( (Active) He made the tree [object] a boat [factitive object]. 

(The tree was made a boat. 

I ( PASSIVE ) ] A boat was made of the tree. 

(3) When the object of the active verb is an infinitive, the subject 



ETYMOLOGY. 


67 


of the infinitive is sometimes used as the apparent subject of the pas¬ 
sive verb; as, 

[(Active) ‘ We believe the lake to be deep.’ 

((Passive) ‘ The lake is believed to be deep.’ 

Rem. —The real subject of is believed is 4 The lake-to be deep,’ 

and lake is still the subject of to be. We cannot “ believe ” a lake, but 
we can believe that a lake is deep. In the sentence, ‘ He is believed 
by us to be honest,’ he is the subject of to be. The sentence declares, 
not that we believe him , but that he is honest. From its position, how¬ 
ever, he appears to be the subject of is believed , and is thus attracted 
into the nominative case, 

3 . When an intransitive verb is changed from the active to the pas¬ 
sive voice. 

(1) The Subject of the active verb may be retained as the subject 
of the passive verb; as, 

j (Active) 1 The melancholy days have come.’ 

( (Passive) ‘ The melancholy days are come.’ 

(2) The Object of a preposition may become the subject of the 
passive verb, the preposition being retained after the verb ; as, 

( (Active) We laughed at John. 

| (Passive) John was laughed at. 

Directions. Change the italicized verbs in the following sentences 
to the passive voice, making such other changes as may be necessary. 
Be sure that the constructed sentences express the same thought as the 
original sentences. 

1. John wrote a letter to his father. 2. He acquainted me with the 
fact. 3. People thought that the king was mad. 4. People knew that 
the earth is round. 5. People believed the earth to be round. 6. 



68 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Some people said that he was a wise man. 7. They laughed at Henry 
and John. 8. The man desires employment, but we can give him 
none. 9. I understand that some one has spoken to Henry about the 
matter. 10. People say that the desire to be known caused his down¬ 
fall. 11. People b'elieve the story to be true. 12. People believe the 
desire to be known caused his downfall. 13. People say that John 
has read many books. 14. People believe John to have done so. 15. 
We caused John to be promoted. 16. We saw him brush the dews 
away. 17. Our friends have gone. 18. We believe that the melancholy 
days have come. 19. Cheerful looks make every dish a feast. 20. A 
kind eye makes contradiction an assent. 21. W selected him captain. 
22. He made water wine. 23. Macaulay calif France the land of corn¬ 
fields. 24. We thought him a student. 25. We believed him planning 
an escape. 26. We heard him giving the alarm. 

Mode. 

164. Mode is the modification of verbs to denote the 
manner in which the action, being, etc., is conceived— i.e., as 
certain, contingent, possible, necessary, desirable, or the like. 

165. Verbs have six modes, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, 
the Potential , the Imperative , the Infinitive, and the Participial. 

Rem.—The first four modes are the finite modes; the last two are 
the notfinite modes. 

166. All Indicative Form is one which usually denotes 
certainty ; as, * I write ,’ ‘ The boy shall be punished ,’ ‘ You have 
seen him .’ 

167. The Indicative Mode of a verb is the aggregate 
of its indicative forms. 

Rem. 1.—A verb in the indicative mode may .be in.the.interroga- 




ETYMOLOGY.^ 


69 


tive style; as, 1 Do I write ?. ’ ‘ Shall the boy be punished? 1 ‘ Have 
you seen him ? * 

Rem. 2 .—A verb in the indicative mode may be used to make a 
conditional statement if doubt is not to be implied; as, ‘ If he does it, 
he shall be punished.’ 4 If he comes , I will inform-you.’ 

Rem. 8.—The auxiliary verbs used in the indicative mode, active 
voice, are have , shall , and will; and, in the passive voice, the conjugated 
verb be. 

168. A Subjunctive Form is one which usually denotes 
condition attended with doubt; as, ‘If he come,' ‘If he have 
done this,’ ‘ Were I you.’ 

169. The Subjunctive Mode of a verb is the aggregate 
of its subjunctive forms. 

Rem. 1 .—With the exception'pf the verb to be, no verb in the ac¬ 
tive voice can be used in the subjunctive mode except in the third, 
singular, of the present and present-perfect tenses. It is customary, 
however, to give to this mode three or four tenses in the active voice, 
using the conditional indicative where the true subjunctive is wanting. 
(See tables of Conjugations.) 

Rem. 2.—The conjunctions’- if, though, lest, and unless are some¬ 
times called the signs of the subjunctive mode ; but as they are used 
quite as frequently with the indicative, and the potential mode, and 
the subjunctive mode is frequently used without them, it is plain that 
they are not signs of any mode. The sign of the subjunctive mode is 
the subjunctive mode. 

Rem. 8.—The subjunctive mode cannot be used in the interrogative 
style. 

Rem. 4.—The auxiliaries used in the subjunctive mode are, have, in 
the active voice, and the conjugated verb be, in the passive voice. 

170. A Potential Form is one which denotes power, 



7o 


ETYMOLOGY. 


possibility, liberty, or necessity ; as, f You can stay; ‘ It may 
be; ‘You may go; ‘You must go.' 

171. The Potential Mode of a verb is the aggregate of 
its potential forms. 

Item. 1.—A verb in the potential mode is used only in the present, 
present-perfect, past and past-perfect tenses. 

Rem. 2 .—The auxiliary verbs used in this mode, in the active voice, 
are have, may, can , must, and should; in the passive voice, the con¬ 
jugated verb be is used as the auxiliary. 

Rem. 3 .—A verb in this mode may be in the interrogative style; as, 

‘ Should he do so ? ’ ‘ May he go?' * Can this happen ? ’ 

172. An Imperative Form is one which expresses com¬ 
mand, entreaty, advice, or exhortation ; as, ‘ Go,' ‘ Try to im¬ 
prove,’ 'Be kind to one another.’ 

Rem. 1 .—A verb in the Imperative Mode is usually in the present 
tense, but may be in the present-perfect tense ; as, Have done with that 
nonsense. 

Rem. 2 .—The subject of a verb in the imperative mode is usually 
omitted unless it follows the verb. The subject is generally a pronoun 
in the second person, but may be a pronoun in the first or third person ; 
or, it maybe a noun which denotes something spoken of. Thus, in the 
following sentence, we is the subject of break, which is in the impera¬ 
tive mode : 


Break we our watch up ; and by my advice, 

Let us impart what we have seen to-night 
Unto young Hamlet. 

—From Hamlet , Act I, Scene 2, lines 168-170. 
In the following sentence we is the subject of turn: 

Turn we a moment fancy’s rapid flight. 


— Thompson. 




ETYMOLOGY . 


71 


In the following, is the subject of be defin'd, which is in the im¬ 
perative mode: 

And what is reason ? Be she thus defin'd: 

Reason is upright stature of the soul. 

—From Young’s Night Thoughts. 

In the following sentences the italicized nouns denote things spoken 
of, and would take the third-person form if nouns had grammatical 
person: 

Be man’s peculiar work his sole delight. 

Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! 

Poison be their drink ! 

Dumb be the atheist’s tongue abhorred ! 

173. The Not-Finite Modes are those which do not 
have the modifications of person and number. They are the 
Infinitive ‘Mode and the Participial Mode. 

174. An Infinitive Form of a verb is one which 
expresses the act, state, etc., without the modifications of per¬ 
son and number, and in modern English is usually preceded 
by the sign to : as, We wish to go ; To have gone home then 
would have been a great mistake; There lay the world, wait¬ 
ing to be discoveredj He believed his plans to have been dis¬ 
covered. 

175. The Infinitive Mode of a verb is the aggregate of 
its infinitive forms. 

176. A Participial Mode of a verb is one which ex¬ 
presses the act, state, etc., without the modifications of person 
and number, and does not have the sign to: as, Whipping 
children is barbarous ; Having lost my situation, I was soon 




72 


ETYMOLOGY. 


reduced to want; I do not enjoy being censured for another's 
faults ; Having been warned in time, he escaped. 

(For the full .discussion of Infinitives and Participles, see 
Chapter XV.) 


Tense. 


177. Tense is the modification of verbs to indicate time. 

178. A Tense of N a verb is the aggregate of its forms 
denoting the same time. 

179. Verbs have two classes of -tenses, the Primary and 
the Secondary, called also the Absolute and the Relative. 

180. The Primary Tenses are those which express the 
act, state, etc., without implying completion or termination. 

- They are*the Present, th z Past, and the Future. 

181. The Secondary Tenses are those which imply the 
completion or termination of the act, state, etc. * They are the 
Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect. 

The tenses will now be discussed in connection with the various modes. 


Tenses of the Indicative Mode. 


182. The Indicative Mode has all the six tenses. 

183 . The Present Indicative may express—^ 

1. A fact affirmed or assumed for the present only; as, The 
wind blows j The door is open*. * 

2. Something true at all times; as, Man is* mortal; Honor and 
shame from no condition rise ; The earth rotates'on its axis; 

3. Something constant, regular, or uniform, or continuing at the 
present time ; as, The wind is blowing j John reads well; My father 
keeps store ; I don't believe in ghosts ; Supper is being prepared. 

4. A past fact, when used in vivid narration ; as, “ Behold there 






ETYMOLOGY. 


73 


« 

cometh one of the. rulers of the synagogue, Jairus by name • and 
when he saw him, he fell down at his feet.” 

Rem.—This is sometimes called the “ Historical Present.” 

5. Something to take place or exist in the future ; as, We dine 
with our friends to-morrow; Duncan comes here to-night; He goes from 
here to Chicago, where he remains a week ; I am going to write. 

Rem.—For discussions of such expressions as, How are we to accomplish this ? 
When are we to start? etc., see Article 

184. The Past Indicative may express— 

1. A past act or state ; as, The tree fell with a crash ; The book lay 
on the table ; The night was dark. 

2. Something connected hypothetically or conditionally with the 
present or the future ; as, If I had a horse, I could ride ; If I saw a 
friend in danger, I would try to rescue him. 

Rem.—This is the use of the indicative mode in a subjunctive sense. Many 
authors, looking to the thought instead of the form, call the verb, when so used, in 
the subjunctive mode. 

3. A past habit or custom or some thing continuing at some past 
time; as, ‘ ‘ They wore hats perking up like spears or shafts of temples” ; 
“ For a second offense his ear was slit , or bored through with a hot iron.” 
They were trying to bore through the mountain ; I was studying my 
lesson. 

“ The very nature of this tense implies limitation as compared with the present. 
It may indicate various degrees of extent of time. ‘ In the geological ages, the air 
had more carbon,’ may apply to a period of millions of years ; it is a law of nature 
applicable to a period of great duration, but now passed. Or it may denote a single 
act of the least possible extent of time : ‘ the lightning flashed ,’ ' the tree was 
shivered The tense does not indicate how far back in the past the event took 
place.”— Bain. 

185. The Future Indicative may express— 

- I. Something to take place, or be, in the future ; as, I shall go; He 





74 


ETYMOLOGY. 


will stay at home; You will be pleased; They will be present; He 
will be studying grammar next year. 

2. Something regular, constant, or uniform; as, Men known to 
speak the truth will be believed even if what they say is not understood ; 
When a beaver is placed in a room, it will attempt to construct a dam 
of such movable articles as it finds. 

186. The Present Pefect Indicative may express— 

1. Something just completed or terminated; as, I have written the 
letter ; The letter has been sent; I have eaten my dinner. 

2. Something complete but not necessarily terminated ; as, It has 
rained all day ; I have been reading an hour. 

3. Something which has continued or been done in the past; as, 
He has been dead five years ; I have resided here all my life ; He has 
frequently been advised to change his mode of living. 

4. Something to be done ; as, I will start as soon as all arrange¬ 
ments have been made. 

187. The Past Perfect Indicative may express— 

1. Something completed before some past time ; as, I hadinformed 
him; The money had been paid; I had been walking in the field. 

2. Something which has continued to some past time ; as, We had 
lived in Chicago two years. 

3. Something connected hypothetically with the past; as, If he had 
not returned the book soon, I should have sent for it; If you had ex¬ 
plained the matter, nothing would have been done. 

Item. 1.—This use of the past perfect indicative is subjunctive in thought, and 
many authors teach that the verbs when so used are in the subjunctive mode. 
This ignores the true nature of mode as a form of the verb. 

Rem. 2 .—The past perfect indicative may be used for the past per¬ 
fect potential; as, “One thrust had laid De Wilton in the dust.” 

188. The Future Perfect Indicative may express— 

1. Something which will be completed or terminated at or before 



ETYMOLOGY. 


75 


some future time ; as, The train will have started by that time ; The 
class will have finished the subject before you will have made a begin¬ 
ning. 

2. Something complete but not necessarily terminated; as, We 
shall have lived here ten years; The monument will have been standing 
five years. 

Tenses of the Subjunctive Mode. 

189 . The Subjunctive Mode of the verb be has three tenses, the 
Present, the Present Perfect , and the Past. 

In the case of other verbs, those which do not have the passive voice 
have only the present tense in the subjunctive mode. In the passive 
voice, the mode is shown by the auxiliary verb be, and the number of 
tenses in the subjunctive mode is therefore three. (See first table of 
Conjugations.) 

Rem. —According to most writers the subjunctive mode has the 
three tenses, Present, Past, and Past Perfect ; but there seems to be no 
foundation for the doctrine that any verb in English has a past perfect 
subjunctive form. Compare the following forms: 


Past Perfect Indicative. 


Past Perfect Subjunctive (?) 


SINGULAR. 

I had been, 
You had been, 
He had been. 


PLURAL. 

We had been, 
You had been, 
They had been, 


SINGULAR. 

If I had been, 

If you had been, 
If he had been. 


PLURAL. 

If we had been, 
If you had been, 
If they had been. 


The conjunction if is not a part of the verb, and does not imply 
anything concerning the mode of the verb. If, though, lest, and unless 
are more frequently used to introduce the conditional indicative, than 
the subjunctive mode. 

(See Article 169, Rem. 2.) 

190. The Present Subjunctive may express— 


1. Something relating to the present time ; as, If he see me, \i. e. 
now], he does not recognize me. 



76 


ETYMOLOGY. 


t 2. Something relating to future time ; as, If he see me [at some 
future time\ , he will recognize me. 

191. The Past Subjunctive may express— 

1. Something relating to past time; as, If I were deceived [at some 
past time], I have never found it out. 

2. Something relating to present time ; as, I wish I were at home 
[now. J 

3. Something relating to future time ; as, If the money were paid 
to-morrow, he would be satisfied. 

; 192. In form the Present Perfect Subjunctive differs from the pres¬ 
ent perfect indicative only in the third person, singular number. It 
rpay express any of the different shades of meaning expressed by the 
present perfect indicative, but implies doubt, disbelief, or concession; 
as, f 

Indicative, He has studied his lesson. 

j I f he have studied his lesson, ) he does not recite 
Subjunctive,- j though he have studied his lesson, j well. 

Tenses of the Potential Mode. 

193. The Potential Mode has four tenses, the Present, the Past, the 
Present Perfect, and the Past Perfect. 

194. The Present Potential may express— 

' „ 

1. Something relating to the present time; as, It may be true, but 

I do not believe it; I can just see the top of the house; You must be 
cold. ( 

2. Something relating to the future ; as, I may see you at Chicago; 
I can pay you next week, but not to-day; You must come to see me. 

195. The Past Potential may express— 



ETYMOLOGY. 


77 


1. Something relating to present time; as, I would go now; If he 
has saved his money, he should have fully one hundred dollars. 

2. Something relating to past time; as, His friends objected, but 
he would go; He tried, but coidd not return. 

3. Something relating to future time ; as^If he should come , I will 
inform you; By starting next week, you could arrive in time. 

196. The Present Perfect Potential expresses— 

1. Something completed before the present time; as. He may have 
lost his way; May we have been mistaken ? 

2. Something related to the future; as, Before you reach the house, 
he may have gone. 

197. The Past Perfect Potential expresses— 

1. Something relating to past time ; as, I might have gone long ago; 
This tree should have been spared. 

2. Something relating to the present or the future; as, Had we 
started sooner, we might have been at home now; Had you invited me, 
I might have gone with your party to-morrow. 

Tenses of the Imperative Mode. 

198 . The Imperative Mode has two tenses, the Present and the 
Present Perfect. 

199. The Present Imperative may express— 

1. Something relating to present time; as, Hand me that book; 
Look at this picture. 

2. Something relating to both the present and the future; as, 
Stand where you are, until directed to proceed; “ Peace there. Hear 
the noble Antony.” 



78 


ETYMOLOGY. 


3. Something relating entirely to the future; as, After you have 
delivered your message, come back to me; When you have read the 
letter, burn it. 

200 . The Present Perfect Imperative may express 

something relating to the present, or to both the present and the 
future ; as, Have done with trifling; Have made an end of doubt before 
it makes an end of thee. 


Tenses of the Not-Finite Modes. 

201. The Infinitive Mode has two tense forms, the 
Present and the Present Perfect (commonly called the “ Per¬ 
fect ”). 

Examples. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Present, To write. To be written. 

Present Perfect, To have written. To have been written. 

202. The Participial Mode has three tense forms, the 
Present, the Past, and the Present Perfect. 


Examples. 


ACTIVE. 

Present, Writing. 

Past, Written. 

Present Perfect, Having written. 


PASSIVE. 

Being written. 

Been written.* 
Having been written. 


(For full discussion of Infinitives and Participles , see Chapter X V.) 


♦Never used “ participially.” 




ETYMOLOGY. 


79 


Number. 

203. Number is the modification of words to denote 
unity or plurality. Verbs have two numbers, the Singular 
and the Plural. 

20L A Singular Form of a verb is one which denotes 
unity. 

205. The Singular Number of a verb is the aggregate 
of its singular forms. 

Rem.—Similarly, the singular number of a voice, mode, or tense, is the aggre¬ 
gate of the singular forms in that voice, mode, or tense. 

206. A Plural Form of a verb is one which denotes 
plurality. 

207. The Plural Number of a verb is the aggregate 
of its plural forms. 

Rem.—Similarly, the plural number of a voice, mode, or tense, is the aggregate 
of the plural forms of that voice, mode, or tense. 

Person. 

208. Person is the modification of words to distinguish 
the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. 

209. Verbs have three persons, the First, the Second, 
and the Third. 

210. A form of the verb which shows that its subject is 
the speaker is in the first person. 

211. A form of the verb which shows that its subject is 
the one spoken to is in the second person. 



8o 


ETYMOLOGY. 


212 . A form of the verb which shows that its subject is 
the one spoken of is in the third person. 

IY. Conjugation. 

213. To Conjugate a verb is to express all its forms in 
systematic order. 

Rem. 1.— The word conjugation denotes either the act of conju¬ 
gating, or the product of this act. 

Rem. 2.— Most grammarians give tables of conjugations in which 
the forms of verbs are yoked with the pronouns which these forms may 
take as subjects. These tables are useful for class drill, but unless 
care is taken to prevent wrong impressions, young pupils are apt to 
conclude that the pronouns are essential parts of the conjugation. 

214 . To give a Synopsis of a verb is to express all its 
forms which are in* one of the three persons and one of the 
two numbers. 

Explanation. 

The first table exhibits (f) The conjugation of the verb be as a 
principal verb; ( 2 ) The conjugation of the verb be as an auxiliary 
verb In the passive voice, or in both voices of the progressive style. 

The second table exhibits the conjugation of the verb move through 
the active voice, ordinary style. 

In the columns headed Number and Person, the signs x and o 
are employed to show the number- and person-forms to be read or 
omitted. Thus, the first line in the second table is to be read: 
“ Ordinary style, singular and plural number, first person, present, 
move; present perfect, have moved; past, moved; past perfect, had 
moved; future, shall move; future perfect, shall have moved." The 



ETYMOLOGY. 


81 


second line under Potential Mode, is to be read : “ Solemn style, sin¬ 
gular and plural number,—first, second and third person,—present, 
mayest , mayst , or canst movej present perfect, mayest , mayst , or canst 
have moved j past, mightest , mightst, couldst, wouldest, wouldst, or 
shouldst movej past perfect, mightest , mightst , couldst , woiddest , wouldst , 
or shouldst have movedT 

If deemed expedient, the pupil may be required to construct the 
tables of conjugations usually presented in the text-books—consult¬ 
ing the tables here given for the appropriate forms. 

In oral recitation, the pupil may be permitted to use the appropriate 
pronouns as subjects of the various verb-forms ; but great care should 
be exercised to secure sharp discrimination between the forms of the 
subject and those of the verb. Not unfrequently, in the mind of the 
pupil, I had been , YOU had been , HE had been , are different forms of the 
verb / If the constructed tables are written, it will be advisable to 
omit the subjects. 




INDICATIVE 


Style. 


Ordinary. 


Solemn. 


Emphatic. 

Emph. Solemn 


Number. 


Person. 


Ordinary. 

Solemn. 


Ordinary. 


Solemn . 


Ordinary.. 
Emphatic . 


Ordinary. 


Sing. 

x 


Plu 

o 


isl. 2d. 
X o 


Present. 


am 

are 

is 

are 

art 


Present Perfect. 
have been - 


be 


may 

can 

must 


f be ~ 


mayest,or'| 
mayst >be- 
canst J 


has been 
have been 
hast been 
hath been 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
have been - 


POTENTIAL 

may | 

can > have been- 

must) 


mayest,or ) 
mayst > have been 

canst ) - 


be 


Do [subject] be 


Number and personwanting to be 
“ “ “ “ being 


IMPERATIVE 

have been - 

Do [subject] have been 

INFINITIVE 

| to have been - 

PARTICIPIAL 
I having been - 


82 






















































mode. 


Tense. 


Past. 


was 

were 

<( 

was 

were 

wast 


MODE. 

were 


Past Perfect. 


had been 


Future. 

shall be-* 

(( (( _ 

will be - 

n u _ 


hadst been 


wilt be 

will be 
shall be 
shalt be 


Future Perfect. 
shall have been -* 


will have been 

(b <1 U 

<< <t C( 

wilt have been 

will have been 
shall have been 
shalt have been 


wert 


be 


MODE 

might 
could 
would 
should 
mi gh test, or " 
mightst 
couldst 
wouldest,or 
wouldst 
shouldst 


be — 


MODE. 


MODE. 


might "I 

SSSd } h-e been- 

should j 
mightest.or') 
mightst | 

wouldest, oij hajrebeen 

wouldst 

shouldst J 


* i. If the past active participle of any 
other verb be written in the place 
of the dashes, the resulting forms 
will be those of the passive voice of 
such verb. 

2. The present active participle of 
any verb written in the place of 
the dashes, will give the conjugated 
forms of such verb, in the active 
voice , progressive style. 

3. By substituting the present pas¬ 
sive participle for the present ac¬ 
tive participle, the conj ugated forms 
of the passive voice , progressive style , 
will be obtained. 


MODE, 
been— 


83 






















































ACTIVE 

INDICATIVE 


Style.* 

Number. 

Person. 



Sing. 

Plu. 

1st. 

2d. 

3d. 

Present. 

Present Perfect. 

Ordinary. 

X 

X 

X 

0 

0 

move 

have moved 








<4 44 

ll 

X 

X 

0 

X 

0 



a 

X 

0 

0 

0 

X 

moves 

has moved 

44 

0 

X 

0 

0 

X 

move 

have moved 

Solemn. 

X 

0 

0 

X 

0 

movest 

hast moved 

44 

X 

0 

0 

0 

X 

moveth 

hath moved 

Emphatic. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

0 

do move 


(4 

X 

0 

0 

0 

X 

does move 


(4 

0 

X 

0 

0 

X 

do move 

- 

Emph. Solemn 

X 

0 

0 

X 

0 

dost move 


44 44 

X 

0 

0 

0 

X 

doth move 









SUBJUNCTIVE 

Ordinary. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

0 

move 

have moved 

Emphatic. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

do move 









POTENTIAL 







may 

may ) 

Ordinary. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

can Vmove 

can Vhave moved 







must J 

must ) 







mayest.or'i 

mavest, or ) 

Solemn. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

mayst > move 

mayst >have moved 







canst J 

canst ) 








IMPERATIVE 

Ordinary . 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

move 

have moved 

Emphatic. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Do [subject] move 

Do [ subject ] have move 








INFINITIVE 

Ordinary. 

Number 

and personwanting 

to move 

to have moved 








PARTICIPIAL 

14 

44 

44 


44 

44 

[moving 

[having moved 


84 







































VOICE.* 

MODE. 


Tense. 


Past. 

moved 

a 

cc 

4 ( 

movedst 


Past Perfect. 
had moved 

(4 44 

II 44 

<4 <4 

hadst moved 


Future. 
shall move 
will move 


Future Perfect. 
shall have moved 
will have moved 


1C It It Cl l< 

CC ll Cl Cl u 


wilt move 


wilt have moved 


did move 

4 4 4C 


44 4 4 


didst move 


MODE. 


MODE- 


move 


might 
could 
would 
should J 
mightest, or' 
mightst 
couldst 
wouldest, or 


■ move 


wouldst 

shouldst 


MODE. 


MODE. 


shalt move 


shalt have moved 


4« 


U (4 


<4 


* i. Directions for forming 
the Passive Voice and 


might 
could 
would 
should 
mightest, or' 
mightst 
couldst 
wouldest, or 
wouldst 
shouldst 


have moved 


have moved 


the Progressive Style are 
given in the three notes 
found on the last page 
containing the conjuga¬ 
tion of the irregular verb 
be. 

2. Eet this table be fully 
mastered; then study the 
conjugation of the verb 
be; then require the pu¬ 
pil to prepare tables 
showing the Passive 
Voice and the Progres¬ 
sive Style of the verb 


move. 


MODE. 

moved 


85 

















86 


ETYMOLOGY. 


LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

(The Verbs marked r are also regular. The forms marked with the asterisk (*) 
are seldom used, being obsolescent or newly introduced. The principal parts of a 
Verb are the Present Tense, the Past Tense, the Present Participle, and the Past 
Participle. In the following list, the Present Participles are omitted, as they may 
readily be supplied by the pupil.) 

Class I.— Last Two Forms Unlike. 


Present. 

Arise, 

Awake, 

Be, or am, 
Bear (bring 
forth). 
Bear {carry), 

Beat, 

Become, 

Befall, 

Beget, 

Begin, 

Bid, 

Bite, 

Blow, 

Break, 

Chide, 

Choose, 
Cleave {ad¬ 
here), 

Cleave {split), 

Come, 

Crow, 

Dare {ven¬ 
ture) , 

(Dare— chal¬ 
lenge 
Dive, 

Do (princi¬ 
pal verb), 
Draw, 


Past. P 
arose, 
awoke, r., 
was, 

bore, bare,* 

bore, bare,* 

beat, 

became, 

befell, 

begot, 

begat,* 

began, 

begun,* 

bid, bade, 
bit, 

blew, r.,* 

broke, 

brake,* 

chid, 

chose, 

cleaved, 

clave,* 

cleft, clove, 

clave, 

came, 

crowed, 

crew, 

dared, 

durst, 

dared, 
dived, dove, 
did, 
drew, 


st Participle. 

arisen. 

awaked, 

awoke.* 

been. 

born. 

borne. 

beaten, 

beat. 

become. 

befallen. 

begotten, 

begot.* 

begun. 

bid, 

bidden. 

bitten, 

bit. 

blown, r* 

broken, 

broke.* 

chidden, 

chid. 

chosen. 

cleaved. 

cleft, 

cloven. 

come. 

crowed. 

dared. 

dared.) 

: dived, 
done, 
drawn. 


Past Participle. 


Present. 

Drink, 

Drive, 

Eat, 

Engrave, 

Fall, 

Fly, 

Forbear, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Freight, 

Get, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grow, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hold, 

Know, 

Lade {load), 

Lean, 

Leap, 

Lie {repose), 
(Lie —speak 
falsely. 
Mow, 

Melt, 

Prove, 


Past. 

drank, 

drove, 
ate, Sat, 
engraved, 
fell, 
flew, 
forbore, 

forgot, 

forsook, 
froze, r., 

freighted, 

got, 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

grew. 

heaved, 

hove, 

hewed, 

hid, 

held, 

knew, 

laded, 

leaned, 

leant, 

leaped, 

leapt,* 

lay, 

lied, 

mowed, 

melted, 

proved, 


drunk, 

drank.* 

driven. 

eaten, gat.* 

engraven, r 

fallen. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forgotten, 

forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen, r. 

freighted, 

fraught. 

got, 

gotten. 

given. 

gone. 

graven, r. 

grown. 

heaved, 

hoven.* 

hewn, r. 

hidden, 

hid. 

held, 

holden.* 

known. 

laden, r. 

leaned, 

lgant. 

leaped, 

lgapt.* 

lain. 

lied.) 

mown, r. 
molten, r. 
proved, 
proven.* 





ETYMOLOGY. 


87 


Present. 

Rend, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw, 

See, 

Seethe, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Show, 

Shrink, 

Slay, 

Slide, 

Smite, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sow (scatter). 
Speak, 


Present. 

Abide, 

Behold, 

Belay, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Beset, 

Bestead,* 

Bet, 

Betide, 

Bide, 

Bind, 

Bleed, 

Blend, 


Past. Past Participle. 


rent, 

rode, 

rang, rung, 

rose, 

rived, 

ran, run,* 

sawed, 

saw, 

seethed, 

sod, 

shook, 

shaped, 

shaved, 

sheared, 

shore,* 

showed, 

shrunk. 

shrank, 

slew, 

slid, r., 

smote, 

sung, sang, 
sunk, sank, 
sowed, 
spoke, 
spake,* 


rent, 

rended.* 

rode, 

ridden. 

rung. 

risen. 

riven, r.* 

run. 

sawn, r. 

seen. 

seethed, 

sodden. 

shaken. 

shaped, 

shapen.* 

shaved, 

shaven. 

shorn, r. 

shown, r. 

shrunk, 

shrunken.* 

slain. 

slidden, 

slid, r. 

smitten, 

smit. 

sung. 

sunk. 

sown, r. 

spoken. 


Present. 

Spit, 

Spring, 

Steal, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

Strive, 

Strow, 

Strew, 

Swear, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Take, 

Tear, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Write, 


Past Participle. 

spit, 
spitten.* 


Past. 

spit, spat,* 

sprung, 

sprang. 

stole, 

strode, 

strid, 

struck, 

strove, r.* 
strowed, 

strewed, 

swore, 

sware, 

swelled, 

swum, 

swam, 

took, 

tore, 

thrived, 

throve, 

threw, r.,* 

trod, 

trode,* 

waxed, 

wore, 
wove, r.,* 
wrote, 
writ,* • 


sprung. 

stolen. 

stridden, 

strid. 

struck, 

stricken. 

striven, r* 

strown, r. 

strown, 

strewn. 

sworn. 

swollen, r. 

swum. 

taken. 

torn. 

thrived, 

thriven. 

thrown, r* 

trodden, 

trod. 

waxed, 

waxen. 

worn. 

woven, r* 

written. 


Class II.—Two or Three Forms Alike. 


Past. 

Past Part. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past Part. 

abode, r.,* 
beheld, 

abode, r.* 
beheld. 

Bless, 

blessed, 

blest, 

blessed, 

blest. 

belaid, r., 

belaid, r. 

Breed, 

bred, 

bred. 

bent, r., 

bent, r. 

Bring, 

Build, 

brought, 

brought 

bereft, r., 

bereft, r. 

built, r., 
burned, 
burnt, 

built, r. 

besought, 

beset, 

besought. 

beset. 

Burn, 

burned. 

burnt. 

bestead,* 

bestead.* 

Burst, 

burst, r.* 

burst, t.* 

bet, r.. 

bet, r, 
betided, 

Buy, 

bought, 

bought. 

betided, 

Cast, 

cast, 

cast. 

betid,* 

betid,* 

Catch, 

caught, r ,* 

caught, r. 

bode, r.. 

bode, r. 

Climb, 

clomb. r.* 

clomb, r* 

bound, 

bound. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung. 

bled, 

blended, 

bled. 

blended. 

Clothe, 

clothed, 

clad, 

clothed, 

clad. 

blent.* 

blent.* 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 




88 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Present. 

Past. 

Creep, 

crept, 

Curse, 

curst, 

Cut, 

cut, 

Deal, 

dealt, *.,* 

Dig, 

dug, r., 
dreamed, 

Dream, 

dreamt, 

dressed, 

Dress, 

drest,* 

Dwell, 

dwelt, r., 

Feed, 

fed, 

Feel, 

felt, 

Fight, 

fought, 

Find, 

found, 

Flee, 

fled, 

Fling, 

flung, 

Geld, 

gelt, r., 

Gild, 

gilded, 

gilt, 

Gird, 

girt, r., 
ground, 

Grind, 

Hang, 

hung, r., 

Have (princi¬ 

had, 

pal verb), 

Hear, 

heard, 

Heat, 

heat, r., 

Hit, 

hit, 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

Keep, 

kept. 

Kneel, 

knelt, 

kneeled, 

Knit, 

knit, r., 

Lay, 

laid, r.. 

Lead, 

led, 

learned, 

Learn, 

learnt, 

Leave, 

left, 

Lend, 

lent, 

Let, 

!et, 

Light, 

lighted, 

lit, 

Lose, 

lost, 

Make, 

made, 

Mean, 

meant, 

Meet, 

met, 

Mulct, 

mulct, r. 
passed, 

Pass, 

past,* 

Pay, 

paid, 

npn ti pH 


x <xy y p^iu, 

Pen (fence in), 

(Pen—write, penned, 


Past Part. 

crept. 

curst. 

cut. 

dealt, r* 

dug, r. 

dreamed, 

dreamt. 

dressed, 

drest.* 

dwelt, r. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

gelt, r. 

gilded. 

gilt. 

girt, r. 

ground. 

hung, r* 

had. 


heard. 

heat, r. 

hit. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knelt, 

kneeled. 

knit, r. 

laid, r. 

led. 

learned, 

learnt. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lighted, 

lit. 

lost. 

made. 

meant. 

met. 

mulct, r. 

passed, 

past.* b 

paid. 

penned, 

pent. 

penned.) 


Present. 


Plead, 

Put, 

Quit, 

Rap, 

Read, 

Reave, 

Rid, 

Roast, 

Say, 

Seek, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shred, 

Shut, 

Sit, 

Sleep, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Spread, 

Stay, 

String, 

Stave, 

Stand, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 

Swing, 

Teach, 

Tell, 


Past. 

pleaded, 

plead, 

pled, 

put, 

quit, r., 

rapped, 

rapt, 

rSad, 

reft, r.* 

rid, 

roast, r., 

said, 

sought, 

sold, 

sent, 

set, 

shed, 

shone, r.,* 

shod, 

shot, 

shred, 

shut, 

sat, 

slept, 

slung, 

slunk, 

slit, r., 

smelt, r., 

sped, r.,* 

spelled, 

spelt, 

spent, 

spilt, r., 

spun, 

split, r.,* 

spoiled, 

spoilt,* 

spread, 

staid, r., 

strung, r.,* 

stove, r„ 

stood, 

stuck, 

stung, 

stunk, 

stank,* 

sweat, r. } 

swet, 

swept, 

swung, 

taught, 

told, 


Past Part. 

pleaded, 

plead, 

pled. 

put. 

quit, r, 

rapped. 

rapt. c 

read. 

reft, r.* 

rid. 

roast, r. 

said. 

sought. 

sold. 

sent. 

set. 

shed. 

shone, r.* 

shod. 

shot. 

shred. 

shut. 

sat. 

slept. 

slung. 

slunk. 

slit, r. 

smelt, r. 

sped, r.* 

spelled. 

spelt. 

spent. 

spilt, r. 

spun. 

split, r.* 

spoiled, 

spoilt.* 

spread. 

staid, r.<* 

strung, r. 

stove, r. 

stood. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stunk. 

sweat, r. 

srret. 

swept. 

swung. 

taught. 

told. 








ETYMOLOGY. 


89 


Present. 

Think, 

Thrust, 

Wake, 

Wed, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Whet, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Wont, 

Work, 

Wreathe, 

Wring, 


Past. 

Past Pari. 

Present. 

Fast. 

thought, 

thrust, 

thought. 

thrust. 

Beware, 

Can, 

could, 

woke, r., 
wedded, 

woke, r. 

Do (auxil’y), did. 
Have (auxil’y), had, 

wedded, 

wed,* 

wed.* 

May, 

might, 

wept, 

wept. 

Must, 

must, 

wet, r., 

wet, r. 

Ought, 

ought, 

whet, 

won, 

whit. 

won. 

Shall, 

quoth, 

should, 

wound, r.* 

w'ouud, r* 

Will (auxil’y), would, 

wont, r. y 

wont, r. 

(Will wish, 1 iUed 

worked, 

worked. 

bequeath , j 

wrought, 

wreathed, 

wrought. 

wreathen,r 

Wit, 

Wot ,* 

wot,* 

wrung, r.* 

wrung, r* 

Wis,* 

wist,* 


Weet,* J 

wote,* 


Past Part. 


willed.) 


(a.) Hanged, hanged, hanged; to suspend by the neck with intent to kill: but the 
distinction is not always observed. ( b .) Past , adjective or noun. ( c .) Rap, rapt, 
rapt; to seize with rapture, (d.) Stay, stayed, stayed ; to cause to stop. 

















CHAPTER VI. 


ADVERBS. 

I. Definition. 

Adverb : Latin, ad , to — verb (from verbum , word). 

215. An Adverb is a word used principally to modify a 
Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb. 

. 

Words should be classified as parts of speech according to their 
meaning. The foregoing definition—the one usually given, except 
that I have inserted the word “ principally" —has been adopted be¬ 
cause I hesitate to make any sweeping change in definitions which 
have grown familiar to teachers and students. It should not be forgot¬ 
ten, however, that it is its meaning which causes the chief use of an 
adverb to be that of modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb. 

II. Classification. 

2x6. As to meaning, adverbs have the following classes:— 
Place , Time , Degree , Manner , Belief and Disbelief ‘ and Illation. 

Rem.—Illation signifies the act of inferring from premises; draw¬ 
ing a conclusion; deriving a truth from a truth or truths already known. 
The other terms used to designate the different classes of adverbs do 
not need defining. 


90 



ETYMOLOGY. 


91 


217 . Adverbs of Place have the sub-classes— 

1. Place in which ; as, here, there, where , etc. 

2. Place to which ; as, hither, thither, whither, homeward , etc, 

3. Place from which; as, hence, whence, thence, out, 

4. Place through which; as, through, throughout , etc. 

218 . Adverbs of Time have the sub-classes— 

1. Time absolute ; as, ever, ?iever, constantly, etc. 

2. Time relative; as, early, meanwhile, seasonably , 

3. Time repeated ; as, daily, often, occasionally, 

4. Time present; as, instantly forthwith , 

5. Time past; as, already, lately, hitherto , 

6. Time future; as, henceforth,presently, etc. 

219 . Adverbs of Degree have the sub-classes— 

1. Equality, or sufficiency ; as, enough, perfectly, sufficiently, etc. 

2. Deficiency, or abatement; as, almost, nearly , partly, etc. 

3. Excess, or abundance; as, better, exceedingly, very, etc. 

4. Exclusion, or emphasis; as, especially, merely, only, etc. 

220 . Adverbs of Manner have the sub-classes— 

1. Quality; as, well, wisely, silently, etc. 

2, Method; as, so, thus, somehow , etc. 

221 . Adverbs of Belief and Disbelief have the sub¬ 
classes— 

1. Certainty; as, certainly, surely, verily, etc. 

2. Doubt; as, doubtfully, hardly, scarcely, etc. 

3. Probability; as, likely, presumably, probably, etc. 

4. Possibility; as, haply, perhaps, possibly, etc. 

5. Negation ; as, no, not, no-wise, etc. 

6. Affirmation ; as, yea, yes, atnen, etc. 




92 


ETYMOLOGY. 


222. Adverbs of Illation have the sub-classes— 


1. 

2 . 

3 - 

4 - 


Cause; ) 

Reason ; I 
Purpose; | 

Condition; J 


as, then, hence, therefore, wherefore, etc. 
(Holbrook.) 


Rem. 1 .—The foregoing classes are not mutually exclusive; and 
owing to the different meanings which the same word may have, it is 
impossible to assign very many adverbs to any class exclusively. Thus, 
hardly , certainly and simply may be used as adverbs of manner as well 
as degree; hence may bean adverb of illation or place; so may be 
either an adverb of manner, degree , or illation, etc. 

Rem. 2 .—Grammarians differ very much in regard to the classifica¬ 
tions of adverbs. The Century Dictionary gives the following : 

“i. Adverbs of place or motion; as, here, there, up, out, etc. 

2. Of time and succession ; as, now, then, often, ever, etc. 

3. Of manner and quality; as, so, thus, well, truly, faithfully , etc. 

4. Of measure and degree ; as, much, more, very, enough, etc. 

5. Of modality ; as, surely, not,perhaps, therefore, etc . 11 


Definition. —Adverbs of modality, or modal adverbs, are those that 
indicate the manner in which the thought is conceived by the speaker. 
They are used to intensify or weaken the effect of the mode of a verb, 
or to form with a verb in one mode a substitute for that verb in some 
other mode. Thus, (1) You can certainly go=You can go ; (2) You 
can not go (Here, the power denoted by the potential mode is weak¬ 
ened or destroyed by not)', (3) Perhaps you will go=You may go. 

Directions. —1. Classify the following adverbs, as to meaning and 
structure. (See Article 233.) 2. Compare those which admit of com¬ 
parison, and state which method is followed. 3. In the case of those 
which are derived from other parts of speech, name the primitives. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


93 


off 

fro 

ere 

yet 

too 

often 

even 

fain 

still 

soon 

well 

widely 

forth 

very 

like 

almost 

along 

also 

nearly 

the 

quite 

afar 

utterly 

as—as 

only 

greatly 

ahead 

presently 

so—as 

forsooth 

noways 

betimes 

avowedly 

annually 

seldom 

homeward 

forever 

seriously 

manfully 

howbeit 

invitingly 

mayhap 

everywhere 

thrice 

otherwise 

rather 

indeed 

solemnly 

unexpectedly tiptoe 

eftsoons 

anon 

straightway 

abaft 

apropos 

double-quick 

two-blocks 

vis-a-vis 

to-wit 

peradventure 


223 . As to function, adverbs have the following classes : 
Modifying (i. e., having the modifying function only), Conjunc¬ 
tive , and Interrogative. 

Rem. —As will be shown in Chapter XIII, adverbs have other func¬ 
tions than those recognized in this classification; but the three classes 
mentioned are all that are usually given. Some authors do not recog¬ 
nize the interrogative adverb as a separate class. (See Holbrook’s 
“ Complete Grammar,” Whitney’s “ Essentials of English Grammar,” 
Reed & Kellogg’s “ Higher Lessons in English.” Sill’s “ Practical Les¬ 
sons in English.”) 

224. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which in addition 
to their functions as adverbs also perform the office of con¬ 
junctions. 

225. The Conjunctive Adverbs are as, how, when, whence, where, 
while , whither, and why; and their compounds, however , howsoever , 
whcnas, whenever, whenso, whensoever , whence-ever, whenceforth, 
whencesoever, whereabout , whereabouts, whereagainst, whereas, whereat, 
whereby , wherever, wherefore, wherefrom, wherehence, wherein, wherein - 



94 


ETYMOLOGY. 


soever, whereinto, whereamid , whereof, whereon, whereout , whereover, 
whereso, wheresoever, wherethrough, whereto , whereunder, whereupon, 
wherewith, wherewithal, whiles , whileas, whilst, whither-out, whitherso¬ 
ever, whitheiward. 

226. As conjunctions when, where, whence, wherefore, and. while, 
may be either co-ordinative or subordinative; as, whether, whither, 
and are subordinative. 

227. Examples showing the co-ordinative use of conjunctive ad¬ 
verbs : 

1. Copulative.— We went to Cincinnati, where we remained a 
week. 

2. Adversative.— We shall go to Chicago, where, however, we 
cannot remain long. 

In the first example, where equals and there; in the last, where 
equals but there. In the following sentences when and while are mere 
substitutes for but: —(1) You said you had studied your lesson, when 
you had not looked at it; (2) John is very industrious, while Henry is 
idle and profligate. 

228. Examples of the subordinative use of conjunctive adverbs:— 
(1) When he returns, I will notify you of the fact; (2) The tree lies 
where it fell; (3) As soon as he returns, I will inform you; (4) The 
reason why the man succeeds is apparent. 

229 . Conjunctive Adverbs always modify the verbs in 
their own sentences. When used as subordinative conjunctions, 
the sentences which they introduce modify some word in the 
principal sentence. Thus, in the sentence, ‘ This is the city 
where John Smith resides,’ where modifies resides, and the 
sentence where John resides, modifies city. 

Rem.— Many authors teach that a conjunctive adverb is equivalent 
to two phrases. Thus, in the sentence, “ Come when you are ready,” 
when is said to be equivalent to the phrases, at the tune, and at which . 




ETYMOLOGY. 


95 


Of these phrases, it is said that at the time modifies come , and at which 
modifies are —the sentence, at which you are ready , being a modifier of 
time. The first phrase, however, can be supplied without substituting 
at which for when ; thus, ‘ Come at the time when you are ready,’ is a 
correct sentence. So, in the sentence, ‘ The tree lies where it fell,’ we 
can insert after lies the phrase in the place, and retain where; as, “ Tfe 
tree lies in the place where it fell.” In fact, when we wish to be defi¬ 
nite as to time, place, reason,etc., we always do express the antecedent 
phrase. Thus, (i) Come at the moment when he arrives; (2) “Not a 
soldier discharged his farewell shot o'er the grave where our hero was 
buried” ; (3) This is the reason why John returned. 

T. he doctrine that a conjunctive adverb is equivalent to two phrases 
involves the absurdities, (1) That a word can be equal to itself and 
something more ; and (2) That a word can modify itself. Were these 
astounding propositions true, language would indeed be * * a mighty 
maze,” and that, “ without a plan.” 

230. Interrogative Adverbs are those which may make 
sentences interrogative. 

231. The Interrogative Adverbs are, when , whence, where , 
whether , whither , and why; and the compounds whereabout , where¬ 
abouts, whereat , whereby, wherefore , wherein, whereinto , whereof, where¬ 
on, whereto, whcreunto , whereupon, wherewith , wherewithal whither-out, 
whitherward. 

Examples. (1) When did it happen ? (2) Whence [ ] this pleasing 
hope? (3) Where has he gone? (4) “ Wherefore hast thou rent thy 
clothes? ” (5) Whither hast thou gone ? (6) Why have you sold your 

farm ? 

232. Interrogative Adverbs, like Interrogative Pronouns, may 
be used in indirect discourse; as, (1) I know when it happened; (2) I 
know whence it comes; (3) I know where it has gone; (4) I know why 
you refuse ; (5) I don’t know whether he will come or not. 




9 6 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Note.—I n modern use, whether , as an interrogative adverb, is always indirect; 
but was formerly used as a direct interrogative ; as, 1 ‘ Whether is Herod, or that 
Youngling King?” 

Rem.— Many authors erroneously treat indirect interrogative adverbs 
as conjunctive adverbs. Students who have learned to discriminate 
between relative pronouns and those which are indirect interrogatives, 
will have little difficulty in seeing that the italicized words in the fore¬ 
going examples are interrogatives. 

233. As to structure, adverbs have the classes, Simple , 
Complex , and Compound. 

Examples: 

1. Simple.— Now, so, quickly, incommensurably. 

2. Complex .—More clearly, most assuredly , less obstinately. 

3. Compound.— Helter-skelter , Jmrry-skurry, whence-ever. 

III. Modifications. 

234. A few adverbs admit of comparison, the methods 
and principles being the same as those stated under the modi¬ 
fications of adjectives. 

235. A very few adverbs have number; as, once, twice, 
thrice, etc.; singly, doubly, triply, etc.; twofold, threefold, etc. 

Remarks. 

1. The and what are adverbs in the following sentences:— 

(1) “ The faster he runs the slower he goes ”; (2) “ What with pride, 
projects, and knavery, poor Peter was growing distracted.” (Consult 
the dictionary for the and what.) 

(2) Many authors teach that the adverbs in such combinations as 

though- yet, if- then, since- therefore , are conjunctions. 

This doctrine will hardly satisfy the critical student. See Article 268. 






ETYMOLOGY . 


97 


(3) Some authors teach that the following combinations are “ad¬ 
verbial phrases”; and “may be parsed as a single word”: hand in 
hand, by and by, through and through , no more, for the most part, 
usual, etc. 


“ It is a mere shift to parse any expression as an adverbial phrase ; sometimes, 
an artifice to conceal ignorance.”—H olbrook. 

4. As# ‘ I ran as fast as John did (run).’ The first as is an adverb 
of degree, modifying fast, and is modified by the subordinate sentence, 
‘as John did {run ). 1 The second as is a conjunctive adverb, intro¬ 
ducing the subordinate sentence, and modifying the verb did {run). 
In like manner dispose of as in the following expressions ‘He acted 
so as to gain our confidence’; ‘The sea is as deep as the mountains 
are high.’ In the sentence, ‘ He acted so badly that I was ashamed of 
him ’, so modifies badly, and is modified by the subordinate sentence, 
‘ that I was ashamed of him 1 

5. The adverbs yes, no, etc., are by some authors called “ Respon- 
sives.” Some authors deny that these words are adverbs at all, classing 
them as a separate part of speech, or giving them a place among the 
interjections. It is true that they never modify other words but are 
themselves complete answers; but they are also equivalent to other 
adverbs which may be used absolutely. Thus, aye, ay, yea , and yes, 
are often equivalent to indeed, truly . surely, verily, etc .; nay and no, 
are equivalent to not, not so, never, not at all, etc. When no is used to 
modify adjectives or adverbs, it is not the same word as the responsive 
no, though agreeing with it in form, but is the reduced form of the 
adverb none. The adjective no is the reduced form of the adjective 
no)ie. When ay, and aye, mean ever, always, forever, continually, etc., 
they are different words from the responsive having the same form. 
So, the interjections ay and aye are probably mere variants of ah, oh, 
O, etc. 




ETYMOLOGY. 


98 


Directions. 

Classify the adverbs in the following sentences, and give the differ¬ 
ent forms of those which can be compared. 

1. Yet here I stand, but where are they? 2. How in the world 
came you there ? 3. It is a period nowhere to be found. 4. She weeps 
not, but often and deeply she sighs. 5. I thence invoke thy aid. 6. 
Overhead the stately columns, majestic still in their ruin. 7. It is the 
hour when babes with angels speak. 8. He was not killed, but 
severely bruised and somewhat stunned. 9. He acted wisely, justly, 
slowly. 10. He walked not quite fast enough. 11. What he did, he 
did patiently, accurately, and thoroughly. 12. Surely, never again 
shall we behold so magnificent a spectacle. 13. Faintly flow, thou 
falling river, Like a dream that dies away. 



1 



CHAPTER VII 


PREPOSITIONS. 

I. Definition. 

4 

Preposition : Latin, prce, before— ponere, sit, place. 

Note. —The rame of this class of words merely indicates the position which the 
words usually have. They are usually placed before their objects. 

237. A Preposition is a word used principally to show 
an adjective or an adverbial relation. 

238. TliO Object of a proposition is the word, or com¬ 
bination of words, having the relation shown by the preposi¬ 
tion. Nouns, pronouns, infinitives, participles, subordinate 
sentences, and occasionally adjectives, adverbs, and even 
prepositions and their objects, may be the objects of preposi¬ 
tions. 

Rem. 1 .—The objects of prepositions are frequently omitted. When 
this is done habitually, the preposition is often considered an adjective 
or an adverb ; as, ‘ The sky above, 1 ‘ The rocks below, 1 * He traveled 
on, 1 ‘ They hurried by 1 

Rem. 2.—A preposition may have two or more objects; and a word 
may be the object of two or more prepositions ; as, (i) I came WITH 
John and James . ( 2 ) We rode to and from the city . 


99 



ETYMOLOGY. 


100 


239. A word, or combination of words, which limits a noun or pro¬ 
noun has an adjective relation—i. e. a relation in which an adjective is 
usually found—and this relation will be indicated in one of three ways: 

1. By form ; as, 1 The man's HAT.’ 

2. By position ; as, 1 JOHN, our hired man.' 

3. By a word ; as, ‘ The SON of this man.' 

In each of the foregoing examples, the word man is used as an 
adjective relation, limiting hat, John , and son. In the last example, 
the relation of man to son is shown by of. 

240. Again, a word, or combination of words, may limit a verb in 
some other way than as its subject or object—i. e. in an adverbial rela¬ 
tion ; and a preposition may be used to show this relation ; as, (1) He 
SPOKE to me; (2) He bought the BOOK of John ; (3) The house STANDS 
between the road and the river; (4) He sailed around the world. 

241. A word, or combination of words, which modifies an adjective 
or an adverb, has an adverbial relation, which may be shown by a prep¬ 
osition ; as, (1) An old tree, DEAD at the top, stood by the wayside ; 
(2) The wind blows sufficiently for my purpose. 

242. Preposition Omitted. — Frequently the relation 
usually shown by a preposition is so obvious that no prepo¬ 
sition is used to show it. 

Examples. 

1. Principal term a Noun. — (1) Three times five are fifteen; 

(2) My dream last night will frighten you if I describe it; (3) Your 

ACTIONS yesterday will bring trouble to your friends. 

2. Principal term a Verb. — (1) He has gone home; (2) He 

REMAINED an hour. 

3. Principal term an Adjective. — (1) Your are an hour LATE ; 

(2) This field is a great deal BETTER than that one is. 

4. Principal term an Adverb. —(1) You should have come an 

hour sooner ; (2) He lives a mile away. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


IOI 


Bern. —The italicized nouns in the foregoing sentences should not be 
parsed as the objects of prepositions understood, but as having the 
VUIth construction—(b) and (c). Prepositions show relations, but do 
not create or cause them. In the sentence, ‘John has gone home,’ 
home has the same relation that it has in, ‘ John has gone to his home,’ 
but in the second sentence to has been used to show the relation of home 
to has gone , and in the first sentence the relation is seen without the 
preposition to express it. It would be useless to supply to in the first 
sentence, since it could only serve to show a relation already clearly 
seen. 

243. No Preposition to Use —In some instances there 
are no prepositions in the language which exactly express the 
relation of a noun used as a modifier of a verb or adjective. 

Examples. 

(i) The fish WEIGHS a pound; (2) He walked a mile; (3) The 
tree measures three feet through ; (4) The hat is WORTH a dol¬ 
lar■, etc. 

In such cases, if we try to express the relation which the italicized 
nouns have, we must use several words; as, (1) The fish weighs \ to the 
weight of \ a pound ; (2) He walked [to the distance of J a mile ; (3) The 
tree measures \to the extent of J three feet through ; (4) The hat is worth 
\to the value of] a dollar. These phrases within the brackets are by 
some authors inaccurately called “ complex prepositions.” To the dis¬ 
tance of , is not a preposition, but consists of a preposition, an adjective, 
a noun, and another preposition. 

II. Classification. 

244. As to meaning, prepositions have the classes shown below. 
The phrases are not prepositions, but are used to aid in making clear 
the meaning of the preposition, and the relation to be shown when the 
preposition belongs to the class mentioned. It will be observed that a 



102 


ETYMOLOGY. 


preposition may belong to several different classes, owing to different 
shades of meaning which it may express. This classification has been 
mainly adapted from that given in Bain’s Higher English Grammar. 

1. Prepositions of Place, and the like 

(a) Of rest, in, at, on, by, beneath, above, etc. 

Illustrations: — in the house, in the book, in slumber, on foot ; at 

the door, at dinner, at war, at rest; on the table, on this principle ; by 
the post, by heart, etc. 

(b) Of motion, to. from, toward , through, before, etc. 
Illustrations :— to town, to you, to dinner, to sleep; from the house, 

from the book ,from the statement; toward the door, toward that re¬ 
sult, toward that conclusion ; through the field, through the book, 
through the sermon, etc. 

2 . Prepositions Of Time; as, at, till, since, after, for, etc. 
Illustrations :— at noon, till Monday, since Christmas, after dark, 

for an hour, etc. 

3. Prepositions of Agency, and the like ; as, by, 
through, with, etc., when equivalent to, by means of, by virtue of, 
by force of, by the help of, through the i?istrumentality of, etc. 

Illustrations: —(i) He came by the the last train; (2) He suc¬ 
ceeded through treachery ; (3) He drove the nail with a hammer. 

4. Prepositions of Cause, Purpose, Motion, Rea¬ 
son, etc.; as, as, for, from, out of, etc., when equivalent to, 
on account of, for the sake of, in consideration of, in accordance 
with, with a view to, etc. 

Illustrations: —(1) He works/<?r his daily bread; (2) He reads/br 
information ; (3) Many called from idle curiosity ; ( 4 ) I do this as a 
pastime ; (5) He returned the plunder out of fear ; (6) He conferred 
the favor out of kindness. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


103 


5. Prepositions of Reference and the like; as, on, 
about , of ‘ as for, as to, etc., when equivalent to, with reference 
to, in regard to, on the subject of , etc. 

Illustrations (1) He spoke on the Wrongs of Ireland; (2) I sing 
of war; (3) He told me about your trouble. 

0. Prepositions of Separation and Exclusion; as, 

of, from, without, save, except, but, besides, etc., when equivalent 
to, taken from, selected from, considered apart from, setting aside, 
leaving out, not including, with the exception of, etc. 

Illustrations: —(1) He came without arms; (2) They were all 
present except John ; (3) He borrowed a dollar from his friend; (4) 
They took him from his family ; (5) They outran all the boys but me. 

Rem.—Some authors regard but as a conjunction in all cases where 
it is said by others to be a preposition. Thus, in the sentence, All 
have returned but John, it is said that there is an ellipsis after but, and 
that the words has not returned are understood after John. Those 
authors would, therefore, condemn the expression, “ Whence all but 
him had fled,” on the ground that him , being the subject of had {not) 
fled, should take the nominative case. In Sill’s “Practical Lessons in 
English,” pages 94-95, a long list of quotations is given in which the 
pronouns following but are put in the nominative. The weight of 
authority, however, including the Century Dictionary , is in favor of 
regarding the word as a preposition in such examples as the fifth. 

7. Prepositions of Opposition, or Substitution; as, 

against, athwart, for, instead of, etc., when equivalent to, in 
opposition to, in defiance of, in spite of, across the path of, in the 
place of, as a substitute for, etc. 

Illustrations:— (1) This is an offense against the law; (2) He 
came athwart my plans; (3) An eye for an eye ; (4) Fair words instead 
of deeds. 



104 


ETYMOLOGY. 


8. Prepositions of Apposition or Association; as, 

as, of, with, etc., when equivalent to, with the character of, 
known as, with the attribute of, with the name of, called, in the 
character of, in the company of, added to, increased by, and, etc. 

Illustrations(i) Shakspere as a dramatist has no equal; (2) 
The city of Chicago ; (3) I am with my friends; (4) He mixed lime 
with sand. 

9. Prepositions of Ownership* Origin* Substance* 
Kind* etc.; as, of, to, from, etc., when equivalent to, belong¬ 
ing to, descended from, made of, etc. 

Illustrations: —(1) The views of my neighbor ; (2) The son of John 
Brown ; (3) The field of the cloth of g old; (4) The laws of God ; (5) A 
rod of\ ron ; (6) The box to this wagon; (7) The sequel to that story. 

245. As to structure, prepositions are Simple, Complex, or 
Compound. 

Examples. 

1. Simple.— At, in, on, to, for, with, through, etc. 

2. Complex.— Out of, as to, as for, instead of, over against, etc. 

8. Compound.— Into, unto , upon, throughout , within, etc. 

Rem. —Many authors teach that the phrases, in spite of, to the ex¬ 
tent of, in the character of, etc., are complex prepositions. It is true 
that when a single word can be substituted for these phrases, that 
word is likely to be a preposition ; but the phrases themselves cer¬ 
tainly are not. It has been urged that the constructions of the words 
in the phrase, in the character of, are not sufficiently difficult to war¬ 
rant taking the time necessary to parse each one by itself. If such is 
the case, it would be wise not to assign them as a parsing lesson ; but 
until it is universally admitted that accuracy and propriety are to be 
studiously disregarded, in grammar, let us not resort to the slovenly 
method of “ lumping” two prepositions, an article and a noun, on the 
principle that the more words we take at a time the sooner we shall 
have done with a sentence. 



CHAPTER VIII. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

I. Definition. 

Conjunction : Latin, con, together—junction, union, joining. 

Note.—The word conjunction is immediately derived from the Tatin noun con¬ 
junction a joining, union, conjunction. 

246. A Conjunction is a word used principally to con¬ 
nect words, phrases or sentences, or to introduce subordinate 
sentences. 

II. Classification. 

247. Conjunctions have the two general classes, Co¬ 
dr dinative and Subor dinative. 

Rem. Most authors use the words coordinate and subordinate to 
designate the chief classes of conjunctions, but these words cannot 
with propriety be so employed. Coordinate means “ of equal rank or 
order”; subordinate means in a lower, or secondary order or class. In 
the sentence, 1 John and James recite well/ the words 'John and James 
are coordinate terms ; and is not coordinate, but co'Jrdinative i.e. it in¬ 
dicates the coordination, or equality in rank, of John and James. 

Coordinative, or coordinating, are manifestly better adjectives than 
coordinate to apply to words that express or indicate the equality of 
other words or terms. 


105 



io6 


ETYMOLOGY. 


248. Co-ordinative Conjunctions are those which con¬ 
nect coordinate terms. 

249. Coordinate terms are sentences of equal rank, or words, 
phrases, and subordinate sentences having the same construction. 

250. Co-ordinative Conjunctions have the sub classes, 

Copulative , and Adversative. 

251. A Copulative Conjunction is one that indicates 
that the meaning of the following term is to be added to that 
of the preceding term ; thus, ( 1 ) John and James recite well; 
(2) We went to town and remained there a week ; (3) Spring 
comes and the flowers bloom. 

252. The only pure copulative conjunction is and , but the following 
words sometimes appear to have the same force : 

1. But, when it follows not onlyj as, ‘A T ot only England but all 
Europe is interested in this question ’: equivalent to ‘ England and all 
Europe are interested in this question.’ 

2 . As well as is sometimes used as a substitute for and to give 
emphasis; as,‘John as well as James has been idle : equivalent to 
‘ John and James have been idle.’ 

3. Also, likewise, Ihen, etc., frequently appear to connect co¬ 
ordinate terms in addition to performing the office of adverbs; as, (1) 
The boy lost his hat; also his knife ; (2) He entered the room, then 
took a seat near the fire. 

Rem.—The conjunctive adverbs where , when , whence , etc., and the 
relative pronouns who and which , may connect coordinate sentences in 
addition to performing their functions as adverbs and pronouns. 
Sufficient examples have been given under adverbs and pronouns. 

253. Adversative Conjunctions are those which indi- 



ETYMOLOGY. 


107 


cate that the following term is in some kind of opposition to 
the preceding term. 

254. The Adversative Conjunctions are but, or, and 

nor. 

Rem.—It is hardly accurate to say that adversative conjunctions 
connect the terms. They rather serve to introduce terms opposed to 
something which precedes. Many authors consciously or unconsciously 
admit this fact by denominating these words “ Disjunctive Conjunc¬ 
tions .” 

255. But usually implies exception or surprise. It usually indi¬ 
cates that the following term is not, according to the usual condition or 
course of things, what is to be expected in connection with, or as a con¬ 
sequence of the preceding term ; as, (1) He is industrious, but he does 
not prosper; (2) He studies, but does not learn ; (3) We went to town, 
but did not remain. 

256. When but follows not, it usually indicates that the following 
term is to be substituted for the preceding; as, (1) We strive not for 
empire, but for existence ; (2) He did not speak, but he fought; (3) Not 
John but James was to blame. 

When but follows not only, it usually implies that the follow¬ 
ing term is to be added to the preceding. (See Article 252, Remark 1.) 

258. Or may imply that the following term is opposed in thought 
to the preceding term; as, You may go or stay. 

259. Or may imply that the following term, though opposed in 
form to the preceding term, is logically in apposition with it; as, ‘A 
triangle, or surface bounded by three sides, is the simplest polygon.’ 

260. Or may imply the exclusion of the following term ; as, ‘I 
must study diligently, or (i. e. if I do not study diligently) I shall not 
learn. 

261. Nor is usually equivalent to or with a negative force, though 
it may be equivalent to but with a negative force; as ‘ They foresaw 



io 8 


ETYMOLOGY. 


the consequence, nor did they seek to avoid it ’: equivalent to, ‘ They 
foresaw the consequence, but they did not seek to avoid it.’ 

Rem. 1 .—The adverbs whereas, while, when, still, yet, nevertheless, 
oxAonly, are frequently used as substitutes for but; as, (i) The thought 
should be clearly expressed , whereas, {ox while, when, still, yet, or never¬ 
theless) you have but vaguely hinted at it. (2) Think what you please, 
only do not deceive yourself. This use of these adverbs should not be 
confused with the ordinary use of whereas, while, and when as conjunc¬ 
tive adverbs. 

Rem. 2.—Many authors class the illative adverbs with the coordinative conjunc¬ 
tions. 

262. Subordinative Conjunctions are those used to in¬ 
troduce subordinate sentences. 

Rem.—Most authors define subordinative conjunctions as “ those 
which join subordinate sentences to the terms that these sentences 
modify;” but it is doubtful that subordinative conjunctions ever con¬ 
nect terms, and it is certain that many do not. 

263. Subordinative Coujunctions usually indicate the 
various relations or modes of dependence in which the sen¬ 
tences they introduce stand, and are classified accordingly as 
conjunctions of Condition or Concession, Reason or Cause, End 
or Purpose, and Comparison. 

264. The conjunctions of Condition or Concession are 
if, though, although, unless, and albeit. 

Illustrations: — ( 1 ) I will go if I can; (2) Though he slay me, yet 
will I trust him; (3) Unless I hear from you to the contrary, I shall 
expect you next week ; (4) They invited me to be present, albeit I was 
not one of them. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


109 


Rem.— Except is sometimes employed as a substitute for unless; as, 
“ Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.” 

265. The conjunctions of Reason or Cause are as, because , 
for, since, whereas, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, and for that. 

Illustrations:—(1) As we intended to go, we made suitable prepa¬ 
rations for the journey ; (2) I came because 1 wished to see you ; (3) We 
ceased, for we were weary; (4) Since you request his pardon, it shall be 
granted. (5) Whereas you have requested this man’s release, he shall 
be set at liberty; (6) Comes now the defendant, and demurs to the 
evidence, for that sufficient facts have not been proved to constitute a 
cause of action. 

Rem.—When we say, ‘ He is industrious, and therefore he will pros¬ 
per’, the sentences are of equal rank; but we may make the sentence 
expressing the cause or reason subordinate, and say, ‘ He will prosper, 
because (or since) he is industrious .’ 

266. The conjunctions of End or Purpose are that and 
lest. 

Rom.— Lest is usually equivalent to that not. 

Illustrations:—(1) We study that we may learn; (2) They set a 
strong guard, lest any should escape. 

267. The conjunction of Comparison is than. 

Illustrations:— ( 1 ) John is taller than James [ ]; (2) “To the 
strongest and quickest mind it is far easier to learn than to invent [ ].” 

Rem. 1 .— Than is derived from the adverb then, and a trace of its 
adverbial force may still be seen. 

“ He is stronger than you,” is, in full, ‘ he is stronger ; then (next in a lower de¬ 
gree) strong are you.”—B ain. 

Rem. 2.—By some authors than is thought to be a preposition, but 
the better view is that it is always a conjunction. In modern use it 




no 


ETYMOLOGY . 


always introduces the complement of words expressing comparison or 
diversity; as, (i) He can walk faster than I can [walk]; (2) His hat is 
better than my hat is; (3) “ I would not have him in one jot or tittle 
other thati he is”; (4) Had the results been else than this [ ], I should 
have been disappointed. (5) The work was not done otherwise than 
[ ] as you directed ; (6) He walked home, rather than wait for the car. 

Rem. 3.—In such expressions as l than whom 1 than ?nej ‘than 
thejnJ etc., there is either an ellipsis of some verb or preposition, or the 
objective case is blunderingly used for the nominative. 

Examples. 

1. He would rather accommodate you than me. In this sentence 
the word accommodate is implied before me, and there is no error in the 
case of me. 

2. “ Which when Beelzebub perceived than whom, Satan except, 
none higher sat,” etc. In this sentence whom should be who, since the 
pronoun is the subj ect of sat understood. 

268 . Relative Pronouns and Conjunctive Adverbs 

are also used as subordinative conjunctions— i. e ., in addition 
to their functions as pronouns and adverbs, they introduce 
the sentences of which they are members. They are some¬ 
times said to connect these sentences to some other word. 

Rem. 1 .—The only ground upon which a relative pronoun can be 
said to connect such sentences is that its antecedent is in one part of the 
complex sentence, and the pronoun itself forms a part of the subordi¬ 
nate sentence; thus, ‘ The man who tills the soil trusts in God.’ In this 
sentence, who is the subject of tills, and is said to connect who tills the 
soil to man. It is plain that who tills the soil modifies man, but that 
who connects this modifier to man is not so clear. The mere fact 
that man is the antecedent of who, is not a sufficient reason, for on 
that principle it might be maintained that personal pronouns connect 
sentences to their antecedents. 



ETYMOLOGY . 


ill 


Rem. 2 .—The only ground upon which conjunctive adverbs can be 
said to connect the sentences of which they are members to other 
words, is the fact that they are equivalent to prepositions followed by 
relative pronouns; thus, in the sentence, ‘ He came to the town where 
I lived,’ is equivalent to, ‘He came to the town in which I lived.’ 
Since which relates to town , it is affirmed that it connects in which I 
lived to the word town. This brings us back to the question considered 
in Rem. i. 

269. Most authors teach that both words of the following 
pairs are conjunctions : Though — yet, although—yet, both — and, 
if—yet, if — then, because — therefore, therefore — for, therefore — 
because , indeed — but, either — or, neither — nor , whether — or, where¬ 
as — therefore, partly—partly, half — half, now — now, etc. 

Rem.—A careful study of the meaning and use of these words can¬ 
not fail to convince an intelligent student that whenever they are used 
in pairs, at least one word is either an adverb or an adjective, Take 
for example the sentence, ‘ I will trust him yet.’ There is probably no 
author or teacher of grammar who will not agree that yet in this sen¬ 
tence is an adverb. How can the nature of this word be changed by 
using a subordinate sentence to modify will trust? * I will trust him 
yet, though he has on-ce deceived me ,’ is a complex sentence in which will 
trust is modified by the adverb yet , and the subordinate sentence, 
though he has deceived me once . This sentence may be written thus: 

‘ Though he has deceived me once , I will trust him yeti Now, it cannot 
change yet redo a conjunction to place it at the beginning of the sen¬ 
tence of which it is a part; thus, ‘Though he has deceived me once, 
yet will I trust him.’ 

General Remarks. 

1 . That is frequently used as a mere introductory expletive to 
introduce a subordinate sentence having the construction of a noun; 
as, ‘ That I failed is true;’ ‘ I know that you are the man.’ 



ii2 


ETYMOLOGY. 


2. Other conjunctions are sometimes employed to introduce a sen¬ 
tence : ‘And now it is evening; ’ ‘ But we must pause.' 

Remark.—Sometimes the conjunction merely serves to make the beginning of 
the sentence less abrupt, and sometimes it really connects paragraphs. 

3. As if, as though, provided that, seeing that, considering that , in 
case , at the same time, etc., are sometimes treated as complex conjunc¬ 
tions; but the practice is not commendable. In the sentence, ‘He 
spoke as if he were angry,' there is plainly an ellipsis after as, the 
words he would speak, or others equivalent to them, being understood. 
In the sentence, ‘ I will go, provided that my absence shall be fully ex¬ 
plained,’ the words, if it is, or their equivalents, are plainly understood 
before provided. In the sentence, ‘Seeing that you can't get what 
you wish, take what you can get,’ the conjunction since may be substi¬ 
tuted for seeing thatj but seeing is evidently a transitive verb, its object 
being that you can't get what you wish. 

4. Many authors state that the prepositions ere, after, and before are 
conjunctions when their objects are subordinate sentences; as, (1) 
We arrived BEFORE he had concluded his remarksj (2) He was very 
brave after the battle was over. 



CHAPTER IX. 


INTERJECTIONS. 

I. Definition. 

Interjection : Latin, interjectio , a throwing or placing 
between. 

270. An Interjection is a word used chiefly to express 
or excite emotion. 

271. Interjections are not to be confounded with other parts of 
speech used absolutely by exclamation. 

II. Classification. 

272. In the classification of interjections completeness and pre¬ 
cision are not to be expected. The following classes are recognized, 
but the list is not exhaustive, and the classes are not mutually exclu¬ 
sive. 

1. Of grief, sadness, or pity; 2. Of joy ; 3. Of earnestness; 4. Of 
surprise, wonder, or horror ; 5. Of contempt or aversion ; 6. Of exulta¬ 
tion ; 7. Of silence ; 8. Of calling attention; 9. Of detection ; 10. Of 
salutation or parting ; 11. Of laughter. 

Note.—-A s interjections are chiefly used to express or excite emo¬ 
tion, they are but loosely connected in construction with other words. 

278. Position.— Interjections are usually placed at the beginning 
of a sentence, but may occur in the midst of it, or at the end, or may 
be used alone. 



ETYMOLOGY. 


114 


WORDS AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Principles. 

1. The meaning of a word is what we think of when we 
use that word.—J evons. 

2. A word with two meanings is really two words.— Id. 

3. The classification of words as parts of speech is based 
upon meaning, not construction. 

Rem. 1. —It is sometimes said that whether a word belongs to this 
or that part of speech depends upon its syntactical use ; but this doc¬ 
trine is illogical, and leads to great confusion. Were it true, it would 
be impossible to define a single part of speech. What is a noun ? It 
is a name, no matter what its syntactical use may be. If a noun were 
“ any word that may be used as the subject of a verb,” or “ as the ob¬ 
ject of a transitive verb or of a preposition, "pronouns, infinitives,parti¬ 
ciples, adjectives , and adverbs, would some times be nouns ! 

If any word that modifies a noun were an adjective, nouns, pronouns, 
infinitives, participles, and adverbs, would sometimes be adjectives ! 

It is not denied that the syntactical use of a word-form capable of 
various meanings usually enables the hearer or reader to determine 
the sense in which the speaker or writer uses the word, and thus to 
determine that the word is a noun , verb, or other part of speech. Take 
the following examples: 

1. They paid us a call. 

2. What say the neighbors when they call ? 

In the first sentence it is plain, from the construction that call 
means “ a short visit ' 1 ' 1 ; and hence— on account of its meaning—vie de¬ 
cide that call is a noun. In the second sentence it is equally clear that 
call means “ make a short visit ^ ; and we therefore decide that call is 
a verb. 

Rem. 2 .—Many authors teach that the adjectives “ should be 



ETYMOLOGY. 


US 


parsed as nouns,” in such expressions as, “ The wicked shall perish, 
but th o. good shall be saved.” No word should be “ parsed as a noun ” 
unless it is a noun. Are wicked and good nouns in the foregoing exam¬ 
ples ? A noun is a name, and plainly these words are not names. 
The sentence means, The wicked persons shall perish, but the good 
persons shall be saved; but wicked does not mean wicked persons , and 
good does not mean good persons. The modified nouns have simply 
been omitted. So in the following examples: “ There are six apples 
on this tree and five [ ] on that [ ]. Pick the ripe [ ] but let the 
green [ ] remain.” “ The rich [ J and the poor [ ] meet together; 
the Lord is the maker of them all.” 

The sweet, plain words we learnt at first [ ] keep time, 

And, though the theme be sad, or gay, or grand, 

With each [ ], with all [ ], these [ ] may be made to chime, 

In thought or speech or song or prose or rhyme. 

—J. A. Alexander. 

Any argument that might be offered to prove that these adjectives 
are nouns, would serve equally to prove that the pronouns are nouns in 
such expressions as, Our hats are old, but yours and his are better than 
mine. 

Directions. 

Determine from its various meanings the different parts of speech 
that each of the following word forms may be. Define each “ word’ 5 ^ 
(see Principle 2), and write a sentence in which it is used correctly. 
Note any change in pronunciation; as ac'cent (noun) — accent' (verb). 
State whether the employment of the different “ words ” is reputable 
or vulgar ; national, or local, or technical; present or obsolete; 
frequent or rare. 

A, abaft, aboard, about, above, absent, abstract, accord, account, 
act, address, advance, advocate, affix, after, aid, ail, aim, air, alamode, 
alarm, alibi, alien, all, alley, alloy, ally, alone, along, amid, among, 
an, anger, animal, annex, answer, antecedent, antique, any, ape, 



ETYMOLOGY . 


116 


appositive, approach, appropriate, apropos, apt, arch, are, arm, around, 
art, as, attack, avail, awake, awe, azure, back, backward, bail, balance, 
bade, band, bask, baste, bat, bay, beam, bear, below, bend, beneath, 
beyond,blow, blush, book, boss, bound,bow, brace, break, brief, but, by, 
cab, call, calm, cancel, canopy, capital, care, carp, carry, case, cash, 
cast, cat, catch, cause, center (or centre), chain, change, charge, cheer, 
chill, cipher, class, clean, clear, close, coach, cold, color, common, 
content, contingent, contract, contrast, crisp, crop, cool, cope, copy, 
core, count, credit, convert, cross, crown, custom, dare, date, decay, 
clerk, decree, deed, defect, demand, design, die, dog, drop, ear, early, 
eke, espy, expect, excuse, exhaust, expose, face, faint, fair, fall, farm, 
fast, felt, flint, fly, fold, for, forfeit, frank, free, fret, full, gin, good, 
green, ground, half, halt, haw, help, hem, hide, high, hit, hold, house, 
how, idle, iron, isle, jest, joy, jingle, just, keep, ken, kind, knot, lock, 
lap, last, lay, lead, lie, like, line, link, list, live, lock, long, make, map, 
master, mean, mine, miss, mode, moot, must, name, nap, near, need, 
net. no, note, number, object, off, on, one, order, out, over, pack, pale, 
pall, past, pass, pay, pepper, perch, permit, pet, pine, pink, plane, 
play, polish, post, project, pump, quack, quarter, quiet, quit, race, 
rail, rain, raise, rap, raw, red, right, ring, rise, rock, room, rope, round, 
rout, row, run, sail, salt, same, saw, say, scout, school, scant, sear, see, 
self, set, sharp, shop, short, shut, side, sign, since, slight, smelt, sound, 
spar, start, state, steel, steep, stoop, stop, suspect, swallow, taboo, tack, 
taste, tatter, tear, thank, the, thee, this, thou, thread, through, use, 
what, while, wind, worth. 




CHAPTER X. 


CONSTRUCTIONS IN GENERAL. 


Note.—U nless the class is unusually strong, the formal preparation of this 
chapter should be reserved for review. Ordinarily, it will be the better plan to 
study the constructions of the different parts of speech in the chapters that follow, 
referring to the definitions and discussion here given as they may be needed in 
such work. 

274. Definition. —By the construction of a word is meant 
its syntactical use—the position and relation it has as a mem¬ 
ber of a phrase or sentence. 

275. A word or element is said to modify another when 
used to limit, extend, explain, or emphasize its signification. 

Rem. 1. —A word or element which is not modified is said to be 
simple. 

Rem. 2 ._When a word or element modifies another, the latter is 

called the base, or principal term of the combination; the former is 
called the modifier, or dependent term or element; and the base and 
modifier together form a complex element. 

Rem. 3.— When an element consists of two or more simple or com¬ 
plex elements of equal rank, it is said to be compound . (But see 
Chap. XVIII for the use of the words simple , complex, and compound 
as employed in the analysis of sentences.) 

The Subject of a Finite Verb. 

276. Definition.— The Subject of a verb is the word, or 

117 



118 


SYNTAX. 


combination of words, denoting that concerning which the 
verb expresses action or the suffering of action, or being or 
state of being. 

Rem. 1 .— When the subject is complex or compound, the base is 
frequently spoken of as the subject. 

Rem. 2 .—This construction is possible for nouns, pronouns, infini¬ 
tives participles, and subordinate sentences. 

Rem. 3 .—Strictly speaking, the finite verb is the principal term of 
a sentence, being modified by its subject, as well as by other elements; 
but most authors and teachers regard the finite verb and its subject as 
co-ordinate terms. 

The Object of a Transitive Yerb in the Active 
Yoice. 

277. Definition. —The Object of a transitive verb is the 
word, or combination of words, denoting that which receives 
the act expressed by the verb. 

Rem. 1 .—When the object is complex or compound, the base is 
frequently spoken of as the object. 

Rem. 2 .—This construction is possible for nouns, pronouns, infini¬ 
tives, participles, and subordinate sentences. 

Rem. 3 .—The object of a transitive verb in the passive voice is also 
its subject, but the latter relation is so important that the former is 
usually ignored. 

Rem. 4. —The definition of the object of a transitive verb, as given 
above, is not entirely satisfactory, and perhaps a perfect definition of 
the object of a verb cannot be made. In the following sentences the 
verbs have objects, but the objects are not described by the definition: 
—‘ He feels pain' 1 He hears a sound] ‘ He sees a book] ‘ He owns a 
horse] ‘ He received a blow] ‘ He owes me a dollar] ‘ The pail contains 
water] etc. 



S YU TAX. 


119 


Other definitions have been given which are no better : 

1. “ The object of a verb denotes that upon which the act termi¬ 
nates.” [As, ‘ The bullet missed the mark,' * We passed him in the 
road,’ ‘ The loss exceeds the gain? ‘ The branches of the tree overhang 
the stream' ‘ The horse outran the cars.'] 

2. The complement of any verb is the word or words required to 
complete the statement. The complement of a transitive verb is 
called its object.” 

[In the expression, ‘To climb a high hill,’ is not hill the object of to climb? 
Does the expression make a complete statement ? ‘ To climb a high hill is difficult.’ 
Are not the words is difficult necessary to complete this statement? Are these 
words the object of to climb ? ] 

3. “ The object of a verb is the word (or words) which answers the 
question, 4 Who?' or ‘ What?' in reference to the verb; as, ‘He saw 
the book.' (Saw what ?)" 

[This certainly makes the matter very plain, as can be seen in the following: — 
‘He is my friend.' (Is what?) ‘He became a good student .' (Became what?) 
‘She gave the dog a bone.' (Gave a what? a what?) ‘The book cost a dollar.’ 
( What cost a dollar ?) * John studies law. ’ ( Who does ?) ] 

4. “ That towards which an activity is directed, or is considered to 
be directed.” 

[Happily illustrated in the following‘ He went home.' ‘ He spoke to me.' ‘ I 
walked toward th z gate.'] 

We must learn what is, and what is not the object of a verb 
from observation and experience. 

The Complement of a Copulative Yerb. 

278 . Definition.— The complement of a copulative verb 
is the word, or combination of words, denoting that in which 
the person or thing denoted by the subject is declared or 
assumed to be, or not to be, included. 



120 


SYNTAX. 


Rem. 1 .—When the complement is complex or compound, the base 
is frequently spoken of as the complement. 

Rem. 2 .—The complement is frequently abridged by the omission 
of the base ; as, (i) John is tall—i. e. a tall manj (2) Some men are 
always cheerful [men]: John is one [ J of these; (3) Some men are 
always in some kind of trouble: Henry is one \jnari\ of that kind. 

When the word (or words) retained expresses the leading quality of 
the person or thing denoted by what is omitted, what is retained is 
usually said to be the complement ; and if an adjective, is said to mod- 
ify_ n ot the omitted base—but the subject. Thus, in the first example, 
tall is said to be the complement, and to modify John. 

Rem. B.—The complement is sometimes called the attribute, and 
sometimes, less properly, the predicate. 

Rem. 4 .—As already explained, the verb be is the only pure copula, 
but seem , appear , and become (intransitive) are usually treated as copulas. 

Rem. 5 .—This construction is possible for nouns, pronouns, infini¬ 
tives, participles, prepositions and their objects, and subordinate sen¬ 
tences. 

Rem. 6.— In the passive voice and progressive style, the participles 
which are added to the verb be are really complements. It is not 
usual, however, to treat them as such in parsing and analysis, but the 
combinations are taken as complex verbs. 

The Subject of a Not-Finite Verb. 

(a) The Subject of an Infinitive. 

(b) The Subject of a Participle. 

Rem. 1 .—The subject of a not-finite verb is a modifier of the verb, 
and is usually so regarded though it really has less force as a modifier 
than the subject of a finite verb has. A finite verb is so called because 
it is finited, or limited, in person and number by its subject: an infinitive 
or participle is not so limited, but the act, state, etc., which it expresses 
is merely made general or particular by the use of a subject, 



SYNTAX. 


12 I 


Rem. 2 .—This construction is possible for nouns, pronouns, infini¬ 
tives, participles, and subordinate sentences. 

Absolute. 

279. Definition. A word is said to be absolute when it 
has very little or no relation of dependence upon other words. 

Rem. 1 .—The word absolute comes from the Latin absolutus , which 
is made up of ab , from-f -solutus, loosened, or set free. 

Sorrte authors, misled by the etymology of the word, teach that a 
word or element which is absolute is never a part of a sentence. Others 
state that a word in this construction may be “associated” with the 
sentence as a whole, but can perform no “grammatical office” in the 
sentence of which it is a part. In fact, however, a word in this con¬ 
struction— 

1. May form no part of a sentence; as, 1 Wheat for sale.’ 

2. May form a part of a sentence, but be independent; as, 

‘ Charles, come here.’ 

3. May form a part of a sentence and loosely modify a verb in 

the sentence; as, ‘Friends in time of distress, in our prosperity 

SHALL we FORGET them?’ 

Note.—I n the last example, friends is the base of the element, friends in our 
distress , which is a modifier of shall forget, being equivalent to, [ Seeing that , or As, 
or Since, they were'] friends in time of distress. 

Rem. 2 .—A word in this construction may be modified by other 
words; as, (1) A STORM arising suddenly , we entered the harbor. (2) 
Having clearly seen the danger , we prepared for it. 

280. —There are at least nine phases of this construction. 

281. (a) Absolute by Address , Salutation , or Annunciation — 
in which the name of a person or something personified, or 
some substitute for the name, is used merely to attract the 
person’s attention, to indicate recognition, or to make the 
name known to others. 




122 


SYNTAX. 


Rem.—This construction is possible for nouns and pronouns. Give 
examples. 

282. (b) Absolute by Exclamation —in which the word is 
used emphatically to express surprise, admiration, pain, anger, 
dissent, or the like. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for any part of speech, and is 
the one in which interjections are commonly used. Give examples. 

283. (c) Absolute by Pleonasm —in which the word, through 
the use of a redundant word, or words, is deprived of the con¬ 
struction really or apparently intended for it. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for any part of speech. Give 
examples. 

284. (d) Absolute by Inscription —in which the word is 
written on something as a descriptive, explanatory, or illus¬ 
trative memorandum. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for any part of speech. Give 
examples. 

2 85. (e) Absolute by Subscription —in which the name is 
written under, or at the end of what is said, to identify the 
person who writes or adopts what is contained in the docu¬ 
ment. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for a noun. Give examples. 

286. (f) Absolute by Response —in which the word is used in 
reply to sqme interrogation expressed or implied. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for any part of speech. Give 
examples. 




SYNTAX. 


123 


287. (g) Absolute by Interrogation —in which the word is 
used to ask a question. 

Rem. —This construction is possible for any part of speech. Give 
examples. 

288. (h) Absolute as an Introductory Expletive —in which 
the word is used to make the beginning of a phrase or sen¬ 
tence less abrupt. 

Rem. —This construction is possible for an adverb, conjunction, or 
interjection. Give examples. 

289. (i) Absolute Adverbially, with or without a Participle — 
in which the word, though absolute, has really the force of an 
adverbial modifier of a verb. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for a noun, pronoun, adjective, 
infinitive, participle, or adverb. 

In Apposition. 

290. Definition.— A word, or combination of words, is 
said to be in apposition with another when added to it, some¬ 
what parenthetically, by way of explanation, characterization, 
or emphasis. 

Rem. 1 .— A word, or combination of words, in apposition with an¬ 
other, repeats the idea of the latter in whole or in part, or adds to that 
idea. 

Rem. 2.—An appositive word or element does not have the same 
construction as the principal term ; but, if possible, it should usually 
take the form which is called for by the construction of the princi¬ 
pal term. 

Rem. 3.—A word in this construction really modifies the principal 
term, and in the analysis of sentences is so considered. 



124 


SYNTAX. 


291. There are two phases of this construction: 

292. (a ) In apposition with a part of speech, or with something 
that has the construction of a part of speech. 

Rem. —This construction is possible for any part of speech. Give 
examples. 

2 93. (b) In apposition with something that does not have the 
construction of a part of speech. 

Rem. —A noun may be in apposition with a sentence that does not 
have the construction of a part of speech. Give examples. 

Object of a Preposition. 

294 . Definition. —When a word or combination of words 
modifies a noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, or adverb, and a 
preposition is used to show the relation, the modifier is said 
to be the object of the preposition. 

Rem. —This construction is possible for any part of speech except a 
preposition and an interjection. Give examples. 

Modifying a noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, or 
adverb, without a preposition to show the relation. 

295. This construction has three distinct phases. 

296. (a) Modifying a noun attributively to denote Authorship , 
Ownership , Origin , or Kind or Fitness. 

297 . Definition. —A word that modifies another without, 
being in apposition with it, and without being linked to it by a 
preposition or brought into relation with it by a verb, is said 
to be used attributively. 



SYNTAX. 


125 


Rem. —This construction is possible for nouns and pronouns. Give 
examples. 

298. (b) Modifying a ?ioun attributively to describe or specify. 

Rem. —This construction is possible for an adverb, noun, pronoun, 
adjective, infinitive, or participle. Give examples. 

299. (c) Modifying a verb , adjective, or adverb , attributively . 

Rem. —This construction is possible for a noun, pronoun, adjective, 
adverb, infinitive, or participle; and is the construction in which ad¬ 
verbs are most commonly found. 

300 . Special Modifiers of a Verb. 

1. Indirect Object.—When a word is used to denote the person 
or thing to or for which an act is done, and its relation to the verb 
expressing that act is not shown by a preposition, the word so used is 
said to be the indirect object of the verb. 

Rem .—This construction is possible for nouns and pronouns. Give examples. 

2 . Factitive Object. —When a word which modifies a transitive 

verb attributively, is made through the verb to modify the object of the 
verb, it is said to be the factitive object of the verb. 4 

Rem.—This construction is possible for a noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, or 
infinitive. Give examples. 

Rem. 1.— Both the indirect object and the factitive object are 
adverbial modifiers of the verb. They must not be confused with the 
object of the verb. 

Rem. 2 .—The factitive object is sometimes called the “ object 
complement,” “objective predicate,” etc. It tells the result or effect 
of the act expressed by the verb upon the person or thing denoted by 
the object. 

Showing an Adjective or an Adverbial Relation. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for prepositions. 



126 


SYNTAX. 


Connecting terms Copulatively or Adversatiyely. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for coordinative conjunctions, 
relative pronouns, and conjunctive abverbs. 

Introducing a Sentence or Member of a Sentence— 

not as an absolute expletive. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for both adversative and copu¬ 
lative conjunctions, for the expletive there , and the anticipative exple¬ 
tive it , and is the construction in which subordinative conjunctions are 
usually found. 

Predicating Action or the Suffering of an Action, 
Being or State of Being. 

301. Definition .—When a verb is used to assert, affirm, 
deny, interrogate, command, etc., it is said to predicate the 
act, state, etc., which it expresses. 

Rem.—This construction is possible for finite verbs only. 

TABLE OF CONSTRUCTIONS. 


Note.—T his table is inserted for convenience of reference in parsing. 

I. Subject of a Finite Verb. 

II. Object of a Transitive Verb in the Active Voice. 

III. Complement of a Copulative Verb. 

IV. Subject of a Not-Finite Verb: 

(a) Subject of an Infinitive. 

(b) Subject of a Participle. 

V. Absolute: 

(a) Absolute by Address, Salutation, or Annunciation. 



SYNTAX. 


127 


(b) Absolute by Exclamation. 

(c) Absolute by Pleonasm. 

(d) Absolute by Inscription. 

(e) Absolute by Subscription. 

(f) Absolute by Response. 

(g) Absolute by Interrogation. 

(h) Absolute as an Introductory Expletive. 

(i) Absolute Adverbial—with or without a Participle. 

VI. In Apposition: 

(a) In Apposition with a Part of Speech, or with something hav¬ 
ing the construction of a part of speech. 

(b) In Apposition with something not having the construction of 
a part of speech. 

VII. Object of a Preposition. 

VIII. Modifying a Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, or 
Adverb, without a Preposition to show the relation. 

(a) Modifying a Noun Attributively, to denote Authorship, Own¬ 
ership, Origin, or Kind (or Fitness). 

(b) Modifying a Noun or Pronoun Attributively to describe or 
specify. 

(c) Modifying a Verb, Adjective, or Adverb Attributively. 
Special Modifiers of a Verb. 

(1) The Indirect Object. 

(2) The Factitive Object. 

IX. Showing an Adjective or an Adverbial Relation. 

X. Connecting Terms Copulatively or Adversatively. 

XI. Introducing a Sentence or a Member of a Sentence. 

XII. Predicating Action, or the Suffering of an Action, 
Being or State of Being. 



CHAPTER XI. 


CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Construction I.—Subject of a Finite Yerb. 

Examples. —(i) The man walks; (2) He will be informed; (3) 
Who did this? (4) / know what troubles him. 

302 . Case. —A noun or pronoun in this construction should take 
the nominative case. 

Rem. 1. —This principle is often incorrectly stated, thus: “A noun 
or pronoun used as the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative 
case.” In the sentence, ‘ Him and me wenthim and me are certainly 
subjects of went , and just as certainly are not in the nominative case, 
but have been incorrectly used in the objective case. 

Rem. 2. —Infinitives, participles, and subordinate sentences may 
have this construction; but, as case is form and not relation , they should 
not be parsed as in the nominative case. 

303 . Position. —The subject of a finite verb usually precedes the 
verb, but it may follow it; as, 11 Him followed his next mate.” 

Construction II.—Object of a transitive Terb in 
the Active Yoice. 

Examples. —(1) John has recited his lesson; (2) Heartily recom¬ 
mend him; (3) Mary’s teacher praised her; (4) Whom did you see? 

304. Case.—( 1 ) This construction calls for the objective case, and 
a pronoun having this form should take it in this construction. 


128 



SYNTAX. 


129 


(2) When the third, singular, feminine, of the personal pronoun is 
used in this construction, it should take the possessive case. (Why?) 

(3) All other pronouns not having the objective case, and all nouns, 
should, when used in this construction, take the nominative case. 
(Why?) 

Rem. 1. —Infinitives, participles, and subordinate sentences may 
also have this construction. 

Rem. 2. —Some authors fail to discriminate between the object of 
a transitive verb and adverbial modifiers of the verb. For example, in 
the sentence, ‘ She taught him the song' both him and song are regarded 
as objects of taught. It is true that in the Latin both these words 
would be put in the accusative case, and him , as well as song , would 
be called the object of taught ; but in English him is an adverbial 
modifier ofbeing the “indirect object”; and should it follow 
song , a preposition would be used to show its adverbial relation ; as, 
‘She taught the song to him.’ In the sentence, * They elected him 
captain ,’ him is the object of elected , and captain is the “ factitive ob¬ 
ject”—/. e. an adverbial modifier denoting the result of the act ex¬ 
pressed by the verb. The infinitive to be is not understood before 
captain. 

805 . Position.—A word in this construction usually follows the 
verb, but may precede it; as, (1) Him will I adore ; (2) Whom do you 
think I mean ? (3) The man whom you saw is my father. 

Construction III.—Tlie Complement of a Copulative 
Yerl). 

Examples. —(1) You are the man; (2) This [ ] is he of whom 

you spoke; (3) We believe the man to be him ; (4) We had no doubt 
of its being he ; (5) Who is he? (6) We supposed the writer to be 
her. 

306 . Case.— (1) A noun in this construction should take the nomi¬ 
native case. 



130 


SYNTAX. 


(2) A pronoun in this construction should take the nominative case, 
if the verb is in any of the finite modes or is a participle. 

(3) A pronoun having the objective case should take this form if the 
verb is an infinitive. The third, singular, feminine, of the personal 
pronoun, when used in this construction, should take the possessive 
case if the verb is an infinitive. (Why ?) 

Rem. 1.— Many authors teach that a noun or pronoun used in this 
construction should take the same case as the subject of the verb. 
How far is this true ? 

Rem. 2.— Many authors and teachers treat the italicized words in 
the following sentences as complex or “compound” copulas: John is 
said to be a fine scholar; He is believed to be an enemy; Gold was held 
to be a compound substance, but is now known to be one of the elements. 

(These forms are discussed in Article 163, (3).) 

Rem. 3 .—The verbs seem , appear , become , etc ., though not pure cop¬ 
ulas, are treated as copulas, and the nouns and pronouns which follow 
them in close relation are treated as complements. 

307 . Position. —A word in this construction usually follows the 
verb, but may precede it; as, (1) Who is that man? (2) “ What a piece 
of work is man ! ” 

Construction IT.—Subject of a Not-flnite Yerb. 

(a) Subject of an Infinitive. 

Examples. —(i) For John to return was impossible; (2) We wish 
him to study law; (3) We expect her to come. 

Rem. —That the italicized words are subjects of the infinitives is 
clear for the following reasons (1) They have the relation described 
in the definition of the subject of a verb. (2) By changing the verbs 
to one of the finite modes, the italicized word will in each case become 
the subject of the finite verb:—(1) That John should return was im¬ 
possible; (2) We wish that he would study law; (3) We expect that she 
will come. (Why are him and her changed to he and she ? ) 




SYNTAX. 


131 


808 . Case. —If possible, the subject of an infinitive should take 
the objective case. If the subject of an infinitive is a noun, or a pro¬ 
noun not having the objective case, the usual substitutes are employed. 

(b) Subject of a Participle. 

Examples. —(1) John's being a lawyer is no excuse for his conduct; 

(2) I object to his acting as clerk. 

809 . Case.— If possible, the subject of a participle should take the 
possessive case. 

Rem. —Infinitives, participles, and subordinate sentences may be 
used as subjects of infinitives and participles. 

310. Position.— (1) The subject of an infinitive or participle usually 
precedes the verb, but the subject of an infinitive may follow it in in¬ 
verted expressions; as, “This to do, I will not bid him . 71 

(2) When the subject of an infinitive or participle is anything else 
than a noun or a pronoun, it may follow the verb—its place before the 
verb being filled by the pronoun it. 

Examples.— (1) We believed it to be inexpedient to return; (2) We 
deemed it to be impossible that this should happen; (3) I had no fear 
of its being proved that he was guilty. 

Construction Y.—Absolute. 

(a) By Address, Salutation , or Annunciation. 

Examples.— (1) John , come here; (2) “ Othou, that rollest above”; 

(3) Good morning; (4) “A recitation by Mary Smith”; (5) “My friend, 
Mr. Adams, gentlemen.” 

311 . Case.—Nominative. 

(b) By Exclamation. 

Examples.— (1) u Scotland! there’s magic in the sound!” (2) Ah 
me / (3) “ What / feed a child’s body, and starve his mind ! ” 

312 . Case.— (1) Nowis should usually be in the nominative. 

(2) Pronouns should usually be in the objective. 



132 


SYNTAX. 


— 


(c) By Pleonasm. 

Examples. — (i) “Gad, a troop shall overcome him; ” (2) “He that 
glories, let him glory in the Lord. ” 

Rem. 1 .—Pleonasm, in general, is the use of superfluous words. 
The word which is absolute by pleonasm is not superfluous, however, 
but is made absolute by, or on account of, some word or words which 
are superfluous. A word may be made absolute by pleonasm by giv¬ 
ing to some other word the construction really or apparently intended 
for the former (as in the first example), or by an abrupt change in the 
structure of the sentence (as in the second example). 

Rem. 2 .—Pleonasms may be the result of ignorance or carelessness, 
or they may be deliberately constructed for rhetorical effect. 

313. Case.— If possible, a noun or pronoun used absolutely by 
pleonasm should take the case called for by the construction the word 
would have had if it had not been made absolute. 

(d) By Inscription. 

Examples: — ( 1 ) John Brown , Chicago , 111 . {superscription of an 
envelope ); (2) Webster’s Dictionary {title of a book ); (3) Groceries {in¬ 
scription of a sign-board) ; (4) “He,” “ she,” “it ,” etc. {when used as 
the titles of books). 

314 . Case.—( 1 ) Nouns in this construction should usually have the 
nominative case. 

(2) No rule can be given for pronouns. Fortunately, examples are 
not numerous. 

(e) By Subscription. 

Example.— A grateful country will rejoice at our success, and history 
will record it with immortal honor. —U. S. GRANT. 

315 . Case. —Nominative. 

Rem. —Observe that not every name that is ‘ ‘ subscribed ” to a 






SYNTAX. 


133 


written or printed document is absolute. Frequently, especially at the 
close of letters, the name of the writer is given some other construc¬ 
tion. 

Examples.— (1) Your obedient servant, John Brown. (Here John 
Brown is in apposition with servant.) (2) Yours [ J truly, John 
Brown. (Here, John Brown is in apposition with the noun under¬ 
stood after yours.) (3) “ With respect, I have the honor to be, etc., 
Alexander Hamilton .” (Here, Alexander Hamilton is the complement 
of to be , unless, indeed, it may be considered in apposition with "‘etc. ) 

(f) By Response. 

Examples.— (1) “Mentionhis name.” “ John Brown.” (2)“ Whom 
have they appointed ? ” “ You.” 

316 . Case.—This construction is usually the result of an ellipsis, 
and the noun or pronoun, should, if possible, take the case appropriate 
to the construction the word would have were the omissions supplied. 
It should be remembered, however, that a word in this construction is 
absolute. It does not have the construction it would have, if there were 
no ellipsis. 

(g) By Interrogation. 

Examples.— (1) “Whom do you think I saw?” “ John Brown?” 
(2) “ Whom do you think they have appointed ? ” “ You ? ” 

317 . Case.—See foregoing construction. 

Rem.—This construction closely resembles that of Absolute by Re¬ 
sponse—indeed, is generally but a special form of that construction. 

(h) As an Introductory Expletive. 

(I know of no good example of a noun or pronoun in this construction The 
pronoun it may be used as an introductory expletive, but is not absolute when so 
used.) 

(i) Absolute Adverbial—with or without a Participle. 





134 


SYNTAX. 


Examples. 

1. With a Participle.—(i) The sun being risen, we resumed our 
journey ; (2 ) He being unwilling, to whom shall I apply next ? 

Note. —The participle is a modifier of the noun or pronoun, and the absolute 
expression as a whole—with the noun or pronoun as its base—is a modifier of the 
finite verb. 

2. Without a Participle. —(i) An honorable man, he could not 
stoop to flattery and falsehood ; (2) A kind teacher, he could yet reprove 
with severity. 

Note. —Many teachers appear to think that it makes the relation of a noun in 
this construction more readily understood to supply being before the absolute ele¬ 
ment ; thus, * Being a kind teacher, he could yet reprove with severity. ’ This, how¬ 
ever, changes the relation of teacher, making it the complement of being , and 
transfers the absolute adverbial relation to the participial. It is no more difficult to 
see that teacher is an adverbial modifier of could reprove than it is to see that being 
has this relation. 

318 . Case.— Nominative. 

Rem. 1.— Infinitives, participles, adjectives, and even subordinate 
sentences may have this construction. 

Rem. 2.—Many grammarians teach that a word in this construction 
is independent, but it is plain that the absolute expression represents a 
subordinate sentence that expresses time, cause, condition, or some 
attendant circumstance. Thus, 

1. My trunk being packed, I sent for the carriage —When, or 
since, my trunk was packed, I sent for the carriage. 

2. Our task being accomplished, we went home= When, or since , 
our task was accomplished , we went home. 

3 * My thoughts being busy with this matter , I did not observe the 
gathering s\.orm=Because, or since, or as, my thoughts were busy , I 
did not observe the gathering storm. 

It is plain that the abridged expressions retain the modifying force of 
the complete subordinate sentences. 




SYNTAX. 


'35 


In the following sentences, it is clear that the absolute phrases mod¬ 
ify the finite verbs by showing attendant circumstances: 

1 . They advanced rapidly toward the town, each man being 
anxious to engage in the contest for liberty. 

2. He sauntered along, his musing fancies absorbing his whole 
soul. 

3. They struggled desperately, each one [ ] striving to gain 

some advantage over his adversary. 

Construction YI.—In Apposition. 

(a) In apposition with a part of speech , or with something 
which has the construction of a part of speech. 

Examples. 

1. Principal term a Noun.—( 1 ) The father, a sober man , gave 
us advice ; (2) The DOER of this deed, you, he , or any one else, should 
be punished. 

2. Principal tetm a Pronoun.— (1) I, John, saw these things; (2) 
You, you who appear so indifferent, will be the first to suffer. 

3. Principal term an Adjective.— 

“ The swan on still St. Mary’s lake, 

Float double, swan and shadow." 

4 . Principal term a Finite Yerb.—He wept— something he had 

not done for years. , 

5 . Principal term an Infinitive.- To return to his native land, 

hitherto an impossibility , was now easy. 

6 . Principal term a Participle.-Rmging the bell so violently— 
an unnecessary feature of the program—should be omitted from future 
performances. 

7 . Principal term an Adyerb.-He comes frequently-every day 
or two. 

319. Case.— If possible, a noun or pronoun in this construction 




136 


SYNTAX. 


should usually take the case called for by the construction of the prin¬ 
cipal term. 

Rem.— Many authors teach that, “A noun or pronoun in apposition 
with another is in the same case.” To this I suggest the following 
objections : 

1. If it is admitted that case is form , this rule is false in statement 
and intent. It is not even true that a noun or pronoun in apposition 
with another should always be in the same case as the principal term. 
For example, in the sentence, “ Let it be in accordance with his High¬ 
ness, the King's, pleasure,” King's is in apposition with Highness , 
which is properly in the nominative case, while King's is properly in 
the possessive case. Again, the principal term may not have the case 
called for by its construction, and the term in apposition should not 
agree with the principal term ; as, I shall punish the ojfe 7 iders , both 
you and him. 

2. If by case relation is meant, the rule is not only false, but 
absurd. In the sentence, “John, my cousin, is visiting me,” the re¬ 
lation of cousin is plainly that of apposition with John. Therefore, if 
cousin had the same relation as John, , the latter would be in apposition 
with itself! Again, John is the subject of is visiting: hence, if cousin 
were in the same relation it would be the subject also. But by hypo¬ 
thesis the relation of cousin is that of apposition with John. 

(b) Jji apposition with a sentence which does not have the con¬ 
struction of a part of speech. 

Example.— All men are created equal,—a fact which all mem should 
remember. 

320 . Case. —Nominative. 

Position. —A word in this construction must follow the principal 
term. 

Construction Til.—Object of a Preposition—/, e.. 



SYNTAX. 


137 


Modifying a noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, or ad¬ 
verb, with a preposition to show the relation. 

Examples. 

1. Principal term a Noun.— (i) The top of the house. (2) A 
LETTER for you is in my possession. 

2. Principal term a Pronoun.—( 1 ) “He of the golden bar” ; 
(2) Who of us can tell? 

3. Principal term an Adjective.— (1) A tree dead at the top j 
(2) The substance is water, or something SIMILAR to it. 

4. Principal term a Yerb.— (1) We shall walk to town j (2) 
Give the book to me. 

5 . Principal term an Adverb.—( 1 ) Agreeably to your request , 
the investigation has been deferred; (2) Fortunately for us, the 
weather has been pleasant. 

321. Case.— This construction calls for the objective case. Nouns, 
and pronouns not having the objective case, employ the usual substi¬ 
tutes. 

Rem. 1.— Infinitives, participles, adverbs, adjectives, and 
subordinate sentences, may also have this construction. 

Rem. 2. — A word in this construction is called the 
“object" of the preposition which shows the relation. 

Position. —The object of a preposition usually follows the preposi¬ 
tion, but may precede it; as, He is a man whom I know nothing 
ABOUT ; What are you looking FOR ? It is a matter that I have given 
little attention TO. 

Rein. —The pronoun that always precedes the preposition of which 
it is the object. 

Construction VIII.—Modifying a noun, pronoun, 
adjective, verb, or adverb, without a preposition to 
show the relation. 




13 ® 


SYNTAX. 


(a) Modifying a noun attributively to denote authorship , owner¬ 
ship , origin , fitness (or kind). 

Examples. 

1. Denoting Authorship. —(1) Webster's Dictionary; (2) Mr. 
Brown has published his grammar. 

2. Denoting Ownership.— (1) John's hat; (2) His hat. 

3. Denoting Origin. —(1) The sun's rays will penetrate the frozen 
ground; (2) The moon flooded the sleeping city with her mellow 
LIGHT. 

4. Denoting Fitness. —(1) Boys' shoes for sale; (2) By reading this 
article, ladies can learn how their hats were trimmed fifty years ago. 

322 . Case. —(1) A Pronoun in this construction should take the 
possessive case. 

(2) A Noun having this construction should take the possessive 
case, unless followed by a modifier which stands between it and the 
principal term. 

Rem. —When a noun in this construction is followed by a modifier, 
the last word of the complex term takes the possessive case; as, (1) 
Somebody else's HAT; (2) “The captain of the Fulton's wife died 
yesterday ; (3) He is at Smith the book-seller's [store] ; (4) Peter the 
Hermit's ELOQUENCE. 

(b) Modifying a noun attributively to describe or specify. 

Examples. —My JOURNEY hoitie was more pleasant than I had 
anticipated; (2) Lawyer JONES; (3) Miss Brown ; (4) “All the he and 
she scoundrels of the capital, writhed and twisted together, rush by 
you.”— Thackeray. 

323 . Case. —Nominative. 

Rem. 1 .—In parsing, such combinations as Miss Brown , Captain 
Johnson, Mr. (i.e. Mister) Adams, etc., are usually treated as single 
(complex) words. So with Christian and family names when the two 



SYNTAX. 


139 


are used together, although, strictly speaking, the former modifies the 
latter. 

Rem. 2. —Prior to the eleventh century, the Christian name was the 
principal term, and the surname was added to it as an appositive 
modifier; thus, John Smith was John the smith; Thomas Williamson 
was Thomas, William's son , etc. In modern times, however, the 
Christian name is conferred both to re-enforce the family name, and to 
distinguish the recipient from the other members of the family. 

Rem. 3.— Many adjectives have the same form as nouns; as, gold, 
iron y German, Chinese , etc. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether 
a given word in this construction is a noun or an adjective. In cases of 
doubt consult the dictionaries. 

Rem. 4.— Adjectives, infinitives, participles, adverbs, prepositions 
and their objects, and subordinate sentences, may also have this con¬ 
struction. 

(c) Modifying a verb , adjectivey or adverb atiributively. 

Examples. 

1 . Principal term a Verb.— He has gone home. 

a. Factitive Object.—(1) He made the tree a boat; (2) You cannot make 
me him. 

b. Indirect Object.—(1) Give John the book; (2) Hand me the pencil. 

2 . Principal term an Adjective.—(i) He is six feet tall; (2) 
Near me was an old man who had lost his limbs. 

3. Principal term an Adverb.— You should have come an hour 
SOONER. 

Rem. 1 .— Many authors teach that a noun or pronoun in this con¬ 
struction is the object of a preposition understood, and recommend 
that the preposition be supplied in parsing. To this it may be ob¬ 
jected:—^ That supplying a preposition would not alter the relation 
of the noun or pronoun, but would change its construction. (2) That 
in many instances there is no preposition in the language which ex¬ 
presses the relation the noun or pronoun has in this construction. 



140 


SYNTAX. 


Rem. 2 .—Adverbs, infinitives, participles, prepositions and their 
objects, and subordinate sentences, may have this construction. 

324. Case.— The construction calls for the objective case. Nouns 
and pronouns not having the objective case, employ the usual substi¬ 
tutes. 

jj em# _Some authors who regard case as relation, teach that nouns 
and pronouns having this construction are in the objective case “with¬ 
out a governing word.” Some of them state that a word in this con¬ 
struction is the “ object of the relation.” This, if I comprehend their 
explanation, means that a noun or pronoun may be the object of its 
case! 

Construction IX—Showing an Adjective or an Ad¬ 
verbial Relation. 

(Not possible for either noun or pronoun .) 

Construction X.—Connecting Copulatively or Ad- 
versatively. 

(Not possible for a noun.) 

Examples. 

1. As a Copulative Connective.—(i) My case is in the hands of 
honorable men, who will do exact justice; (2) When at school, I studied 
grammar, which is as difficult as arithmetic. 

Note.—I n the first sentence, who equals and they; in the second sentence, which 
equals and it. 

2. As an Adversative Connective.—( 1 ) We employed another 
servant, who was no better than the former, however; (2) Being tired 
of walking, we tried riding, which also proved to be fatiguing. 

Note.—I n the first sentence, ?t/ho equals but he; in the second sentence, which 
equals but it. 

325 . Case.— A pronoun having this construction performs the office 




SYNTAX. 


141 


of a conjunction in addition to its pronominal function. As a pronoun, 
it will have some construction already considered, and the case which 
it should take is to be determined by the principles stated under such 
constructions. 

(/onstruction XI.—Introducing a Sentence or a 
Member of a Sentence. 

{Not possible for a noun.) 

Examples. 

Not as Expletives. — (1) The man who tills the soil trusts in 
God ; (2) The books which you ordered have arrived ; (3) What he 
bids you do, do cheerfully; (4) The man that toils is worthy of his 
reward ; (5) Such as come will be welcome; (6) There is no one but 
knows good from evil; (J) Why did you entrust the business to Charles, 
who has no qualifications for it ? (8) Why do you pass all your time in 
reading trashy novels, which will unfit you for practical life ? 

Rem. —The relative pronouns in the foregoing sentences 
perform the offices of subordinative conjunctions— i. e., the 
sentences which they introduce are modifiers. In the first 
six examples the subordinate sentences modify nouns; in the 
seventh and eighth, the subordinate sentences modify verbs. 

2 . As ail Expletive. —(i) It is my purpose to practice 
economy; (2) I declare it to be my purpose to practice economy; 
(3) You cannot doubt its being my purposed practice economy. 

Rem. 1 .—In the foregoing examples, it takes the place of 
the subject of the verb be, and allows that subject, to practice 
economy , to follow the verb. That it is a mere expletive will 
be clear if each sentence is written with the subject of the 
verb be in its usual position: (1) To practice economy is my 



142 


SYNTAX. 


purpose ; (2) I declare to practice economy to be my purpose ; 
(3) You can not doubt to practice economy being my purpose. 

Rem. 2 .— It is the only pronoun that can have this ex¬ 
pletive use ; but the adverb there is used in the same manner; 
as, (1) There was a man here to see you ; (2) There is no 
doubt of the truth of the statement. 

Conjunctions, especially that and for , are frequently used 
expletively as introductory words. 

326. Case. —In this construction, it should take the pos¬ 
sessive case when used as the apparent subject of the parti¬ 
ciple ; otherwise, the nominative case should be employed. 

Note. —For the cases of relative pronouns, see “ Case," 
Xth Construction. 


Exercises in Parsing Nouns and Pronouns. 

The Steps. 

1. Classify the word. 

2. State its modifications. 

3. State its construction. 

4. If a pronoun, mention its antecedent. 

(1) Classify it as a connective. 

(2) Mention the terms it connects. 


5. If a relative pronoun 

Models. 


Nouns. 


Sentence. 


I. 

For gods delight in gods, 

And thrust the weak aside; 

To him who scorns their charities, 
Their arms fly open wide.— Emerson. 



SYNTAX. 


J 4 3 


Parsing. 

Gods: 

1. Classification. —Noun, common, class, concrete, simple. 

2 . Modifications. —(Third),* plural,masculine, nominative. 

3. Construction .—I., subject of the verb delight. 

* Bern.—The parentheses denote that the word does not have the modification 
referred to, but that the meaning of the word calls for the form mentioned. In 
this sentence, gods denotes something spoken of, and if nouns had the modifica¬ 
tion of person, the word would take the form mentioned. The pronoun their, in 
the third line, refers to gods, and of course agrees with it in meaning ; and since 
this pronoun has person, it takes the appropriate form. 

II. 

Sentence. 

Then I said, “ I covet truth ; 

Beauty is unripe childhood's cheat.”—I d. 

Parsing. 

Truth: 

1. Classification. —Noun, common, particular, abstract, simple. 

2 . Modifications .—(Third), singular, (neuter), nominative.* 

3. Construction. —II., object of the verb covet. 

* Bern.—Bear in mind that case means form. Nouns have only two forms to indi¬ 
cate their various relations. If truth had an objective case, it would take that form 
in the sentence, as the construction calls for it. If case were relation, truth would 
be in the objective case, and the fact would be stated under “ Construction ” in the 
formula for parsing ; but it would still be necessary to state the form of the word 
under “ Modifications.” Students whose knowledge of the true significance of 
case is not sufficiently clear to make them “ easy minded ” in the correct parsingof 
nouns, should be permitted to write the word form after nominative in the model. 
The relation is stated under “ Construction.” 

Childhood’s : 

1. Classification. —Noun, common, particular, abstract, simple. 

2. Modifications. —(Third), singular, (neuter), possessive. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (a), modifying the noun cheat to denote 
ownership.* 

* Rem.—The word ownership is here used in its broadest sense—signifying, 
“ The state of having or possessing.” 




144 


SYNTAX. 


Sentence. HI* 

Ages and climes remote, to thee impart 
What charms in Genius, or refines in Art ; 

Thee, in whose hands the keys of Science dwell, 

The pensive portress of her holy cell.— Rogers. 

Parsing. 

Hands : 

1. Classification. —Noun, common, class, concrete, simple. 

2. Modifications. —(Third), plural, (neuter), nominative. 

3. Construction .—VII., the object of in, modifying the verb dwell . 
Portress : 

1. Classification. —Noun, common, class, concrete, simple. 

2. Modifications. —(Third), singular, feminine, nominative. 

3. Construction .—VI. (a), in apposition with the pronoun thee. 

Sentence. IV. 

Sir Guy de Montfort was as brave a knight as ever laid lance in rest, 
or swung his glittering battle-axe. — T. S. Arthur. 

Parsing. 

Sir Guy de Montfort : 

1. Classification.— Noun, proper, designates a person, complex. 

2. Modifications. —(Third), singular, masculine, nominative. 

3. Construction.— I., subject of the verb was. 

Battle-axe : 

1. Classification. —Noun, common, class, concrete, compound. 

2. Modifications.— (Third), singular, (neuter), nominative. 

3. Construction. —II., object of the verb swung. 

Pronouns. 

Sentence. I- 

My golden spurs now bring to me, 

And bring to me my richest mail, 

For to-morrow I go over land and sea, 

In search of the Holy Grail.— Lowell. 



SYNTAX. 


45 


Parsing. 

My: 

1. Classification. —Pronoun, personal, simple. 

2. Modifications .—First, singular, (common), possessive. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (a), modifying the noun spurs, denoting 
ownership. 

4. Antecedent. —Name of speaker—not given. 

Me: 

1. Classification.— Pronoun, personal, simple. 

2. Modifications.— First, singular, (common), objective. 

3. Construction. —VII., object of the preposition to , modifying the 
verb bring. 

4. Antecedent.— The name of the speaker—not given. 


II. 


Sentence. 

O Thou , whose presence went before 
*Our fathers on their weary way, 

As with thy chosen moved of yore 
The fire by night, the cloud by day.— Whittier. 

Parsing. 

Thou : 

1. Classification.— Pronoun, personal, simple. 

2. Modifications. —Second, singular, (common), nominative,solemn. 

3. Construction. —V. (a), absolute by direct address. 

4. Antecedent. —Name of the Deity—not given. 

Their : 

1. Classification. —Pronoun, personal, simple. 

2. Modifications. —Third, plural, (common), possessive. 

3. Construction. — VIII. (a), modifying the noun way , to denote 
ownership. 

4. Antecedent. — Fathers. 




146 


SYNTAX. 


III. 

Sentence. 

For who maketh thee to differ from another? and what hast thou 
that thou hast not received ? 

Parsing'. 

Who: 

1. Classification.— Pronoun, interrogative, simple. 

2. Modifications. —(Third), number indeterminate, (common), nomi¬ 
native. 

3. Construction —I., subject of the verb maketh. 

4. Antecedent .—Name or names of person or persons in general. 
Thee : 

1. Classification. —Pronoun, personal, simple. 

2. Modifications. —Second, singular, (common), objective, solemn. 

3. Construction. —IV. (a), subject of the infinitive to differ. 

4. Antecedent .—Name of the person addressed—not given. 

That: 

1. Classification. —Pronoun, relative, simple. 

2. Modifications. —(Third), number indeterminate, (neuter), nomi¬ 
native. 

3. Construction. —II., object of the verb hast received. 

4. Antecedent .— What. 

5. As a conjunction. 

(1) Subordinative. 

(2) Introduces “ That thou hast not received .” 

IV. 

Sentence. 

I know what detains him. 

Parsing. 

What : 

1. Classification. — Pronoun, interrogative, simple. 

2. Modifications. —(Third), (singular), neuter, nominative. 



SYNTAX. 


47 


3. Construction. —I., subject of the verb detains. 

4. Antecedent — Name of the thing inquired after by the subordinate 
sentence, “ What detains him.” 

V. 

Sentence. 

The book is hers , not yours. 

Parsing. 

Hers: 

1. Classification. —Pronoun, personal, simple. 

2. Modifications. —Third, singular, feminine, possessive—strength¬ 
ened form. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (a), modifies a noun \book J, or [property] 
understood, denoting ownership. 

4. Antecedent— Name of person spoken of—not given. 

(Compare this method of parsing hers with that given in Harvey’s Grammar, 
page 63, Article 68.) 

VI. 

Sentence. 

Do cheerfully what is assigned you. 

Parsing. 

What : 

1. Classification. —Pronoun, relative, simple. 

2. Modifications.—(Third), (singular), neuter, nominative. 

3. Construction.— 1 ., subject of the verb is assigned. 

4. Antecedent.— Some noun not given but understood as the object 
of do. 

5. As a Conjunction. 

(1) Subordinative . 

(2) Introduces as a modifier of its supposed antecedent the 

sentence, u what is assigned you.” 

VII. 

Sentence. 

If a field be in the form of an equilateral triangle whose altitude is 




SYNTAX. 


48 


4 rods, what would be the cost of fencing it in, at 75 cents a rod.— 
Ray’s Higher Arithmetic. 


Parsing. 

Whose : 

1. Classification. —Pronoun, relative, simple. 

2. Modifications. —(Third), (singular), neuter, possessive. 

3. Construction.— VIII. (a), modifying the noun altitude , to denote 
ownership. 

4. Antecedent. — Triangle. 


Rem. — Whose in this sentence is the possessive ease of what , and not of who. 
See Declension of Pronouns, 2, 3. 

Note.—W hen writing out a lesson in parsing, the student will 
follow the arrangement shown in the models ; but in placing the work 


on the black-board at recitation, 
vertical columns, as follows : 

God’s : 

1. Classification. 

Noun, 

common, 

class, 

concrete, 

simple. 

2. Modifications. 

(Third), 

plural, 

masculine, 

nominative. 

3. Construction. 

I. Subject of the verb 
delight. 


it will be better to arrange it in 
My: 

1. Classification. 

Pronoun, 

personal, 

simple. 

2. Modifications. 

First, 

singular, 

(common), 

possessive. 

3. Construction. 

VIII. (a), modifying the 
noun spurs, denoting owner¬ 
ship. 

4. Antecedent. 

Name of the speaker, not 
given. 




CHAPTER XII. 


CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Construction III.—Complement of a Copulative 
Verb. 

Examples. 

(a) The Terb being Finite.— (i) The grass is green; 

(2) If he be guilty , conviction is certainj (3) He could be 
honest; (4) Be honest. 

(b) The Yerb being Not-Finite.— (1) We wish him to 
be diligent j (2) His being honest will cause people to respect 
him. 

Rem. 1.— Though most authors recognize this construction of an 
adjective, some do not require it to be given in parsing—the practice 
being merely to state that the adjective modifies (or “belongs to”) the 
subject of the verb. 

Rem. 2 .— An adjective may have this construction when the subject 
of the verb is an infinitive, a participle, or a subordinate sentence; as, (1) 
To return was impossible; (2) His being a good swimmer was fortunate; 

(3) That all men are created equal is true. 

Rem. 3.—In all their constructions, the present and perfect infini¬ 
tives and participles of the verb be may be followed by adjectives in 
this construction. 

Rem. 4 .— An adjective used as the complement of a participle which 


149 



i5o 


SYNTAX. 


modifies a noun attributively (See Construction VIII. (b)), may refer 
to the noun which the participle modifies ; as, (i) The boy being honest 
was respected by all; (2) The heat being intense, viz. remained in doors. 

Hem. 5 .—Definitive adjectives do not often have this construction. 
When they appear to be used as complements, they are generally sup¬ 
posed to modify nouns understood; as, (1) We are seven [ ]; (2) Your 
friends are tnany [ ]; (3) This is all [ ]. In these examples the 
adjectives modify nouns implied, which are the real complements of 
the verbs. 

Some difficulty in applying this principle arises when definitive and 
descriptive adjectives are connected by a co-ordinative conjunction; 
as, (1) Your friends are many and true; (2) “ Few and short were the 
prayers we said.” 

The practice among teachers is not uniform, but the prevailing cus¬ 
tom is to consider the complement as compound, and not to supply 
nouns after many and few. 

Note. —The simple fact is that in all cases where an adjective appears to be the 
complement of a copulative verb, the complement has been abridged by omitting 
the base— i. e., the noun, or its equivalent, which the adjective modifies. Were 
this fact recognized, the confusion mentioned would be avoided; but the practice 
of regarding descriptive adjectives as complements has become too firmly estab¬ 
lished to be changed by merely showing that it is erroneous and inconvenient. 

Rem. 6. —Nouns, pronouns, infinitives, participles, and subordinate 
sentences may have this construction. An adverb, however, does not 
have this construction. 

Rem. 7 .—A word in this construction is by some authors called the 
“ attribute complement,” and by others simply the “ attribute.” The 
term complement is preferable, however, for reasons already given. 

Rem. 8 .—Some authors refer to a word in this construction as be¬ 
ing used “ in the predicate with is,” “in the predicate with were,” etc. 
These expressions are subject to criticism on account of their indefi¬ 
niteness. The predicate is “that part of the sentence which is not the 
subject.”—(Century Dictionary). Any word of a sentence of which 



SYNTAX. 


151 


is is the copula is “in the predicate with is,” if not in the subject. 
Thus, in the sentence, “ John is very tall for one of his age,” seven 
words are “ in the predicate with is,” but only one is the complement 
of is. 

327 . Position.—An adjective in this construction usually follows 
the verb, but may precede it; as, (1) “ Black as your hat was the 
night”; (2) “ Youngest of all was he of the men who came in the May 
Flower.” 

Construction V.—Absolute. 

Examples. 

(b) By Exclamation. — “Good! I am glad to hear you say it.” 

(c) By Inscription .—Examples are seldom met in books. 

The words “Hot,” “Cold,” “Moist,” and “ Dry,” in the diagram of 
the Lower Regions given in Sprague’s edition of Paradise Lost, are 
examples. 

(1) Absolute Adverbial.— “Great in life, he was surpass- 
ingly great in death.” 

Rem.— Other examples of adjectives in the fifth construction may 
occasionally be met. All that is attempted here is to show that the 
construction is possible for the adjective. 

Construction VI.—In Apposition. 

(a) In apposition with a part of speech , or something having 
the constructio?i of a part of speech. 

Examples. 

1. Principal term a Noun.—(1) A cloud of smoke, black, silent , 
horrible , puffed a hundred feet into the air. 

(2) From the sky, serene and far, 

A voice fell, like a falling star, 

Excelsior!—L ongfellow. 



152 


SYNTAX. 


2. Principal term a Pronoun.—“ You —young, talented , wealthy , 
—how can you be despondent ? ” 

3. Principal term an Adjects ye.— His doctrines are exoteric— 
capable of being readily comprehended. 

4. Principal term an Infinitive.— Is he a man to trust —worthy 
of our confidence ? 

328 . Position . —An adjective in this construction follows 
the principal term. 

Construction Til.—Object of a Preposition. 

Examples. —(1) Your grade is anything but good. (2) He is hand¬ 
some, witty, courageous, kind—everything but hottest. 

Bern.—An adjective in this construction is not to be confused with 
the so-called use of the adjective as a noun. 

Construction Till. — Modifying a noun, pronoup, 
adjective, verb, or adverb, without a preposition to 
show the relation. 

(b) Modifying a noun or pronoun attributively to describe or 
specify. 

Examples.—(1) The beautiful spring has come; (2) That man; 
(3) He alone remained; (4) Happy we. 

329 . Position.—An adjective in this construction usually precedes 
the principal term, but may follow it. 

(c) Modifying a verb , adjective , or adverb attributively. 

Examples. 

1. Principal term a Verb.— (1) He stood firm; (2) The apple 
TASTES sourj (3) John remained silent; (4) His face GREW black. 

Factitive Object.— (1) She wrings the clothes dryj (2) The stick 
was made straight; (3) We called him honest. 




SYNTAX. 


153 

Rem. —Adjectives in this construction are by some authors treated 
as adverbs, but are more frequently called complements of the verbs 
and are disposed of as if the verbs were copulas. It must be clear, 
however, that in each of the examples given, as well as in others of 
frequent occurrence, the adjective really modifies the verb as well as 
the noun or pronoun into relation with which the adjective is brought 
by the verb. 

2. Principal term an Adjective.—(1) He wore a light green coat; 
(2) His hair is dark BROWN ; (3) The water was of a deep blue color. 

Rem. —In parsing, light green , dark brown , and deep blue , are to be 
considered complex adjectives. Sometimes they are written as com¬ 
pound words. 

Exercises in Parsing Adjectives. 

The Steps. 

1. Classification. 

2. Modifications, if any. 

3. Construction. 

(1) If used in the third, fifth, or eighth construction, 
designate the word or combination of words to 
which it relates. 

(2) If it admits of comparison, state by which method, 
and give the different forms. 

Models. 

Sentence. 

I 

The American farmer, son of the sun, 

Bronzed with a glow from its glory won, 

As free as the air it is heaven to inhale, 

And strong as the steeds of the prairie gale, 



154 


S VAT TAX. 


Lord of his castle and broad domain,— 

The herd his vassals, the flock his train, 

And rich in the coin his granaries hoard, 

He sits at the head of his bountiful board, 

And laughs at the crowded world afar 
Buzzing with ceaseless commercial war.—H. W. Parker. 
Parsing. 

American : 

1. Classification. —Adjective, descriptive, qualitative, proper, simple. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (b), modifying the noun farmer. 

Free : 

1. Classification. —Adjective, descriptive, simple. 

2. Modification. —Positive degree. 

3. Construction. —VI. (a), in apposition with the noun farmer. 

4. Compared regularly—free, freer , freest. 

Crowded: 

1. Classification. —Adjective, descriptive, qualitative, participial, 
simple. 

2. Modification. —Positive degree. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (b), modifying the noun world. 

4. Periphrastic Comparison. 

II. 

Sentence. 

The sweet plain words we learnt at first keep time, 

And, though the theme be sad or gay or grand, 

With each, with all, these may be made to chime 
In thought or speech or song or prose or rhyme. 

—J. A. Alexander.' 

Parsing. 

Sad: 

1. Classification. —Adjective, descriptive, qualitative, simple. 




SYNTAX. 


155 


2. Modification. —Positive degree. 

3. Construction. —III., the complement of be, relating to the noun 
theme. 

4. Compared regularly ,— sad, sadder , saddest. 

These : 

1. Classification.— Adjective, definitive, pronominal, demonstrative, 
simple. 

2. Modification. —Plural number. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (b), modifying the noun \words\. 

III. 

Sentence. 

There is who maketh himself rich , and wanteth all things; 
who maketh himself poor, yet hath much wealth.— Proverbs. 

Rich: 

1. Classification.— Adjective, descriptive, qualitative, simple. 

2. Modification. —Positive degree. 

3. Construction.—Y III. (c), factitive object of the verb maketh , 
relating to the pronoun himself. 

4. Compared regularly ,— rich , richer , richest. 

V. 

Sentence. 

Many a more difficult problem has been solved. 

Parsing. 

Many a : 

1. Classification— Adjective, definitive, pronominal, indefinite, 
complex. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction.— V III. (b), modifying the noun problem. 

More difficult : 

1. Classification.— Adjective, descriptive, qualitative, complex. 

2. Modification. —Comparative degree. 

3. Construction—Y III. (b), modifying the noun problem. 



156 


SYNTAX. 


4. Periphrastic comparison. 

VI. 

Sentence. 

He wore a woolen coat, of light green color, heavily ornamented 
with brass buttons. 

Parsing. 

Light green: 

1. Classification. —Adjective, descriptive, qualitative, complex. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (b), modifying the noun color. 

Brass : 

1. Classification .—Adjective, descriptive, material, simple. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction —VIII. (b), modifying the noun buttons. 

VII. 

Sentence. 

This man’s motives were good, the other's were bad. 

Parsing. 

Other’s : 

1. Classification. —Adjective, definitive, pronominal, demonstra¬ 
tive, simple. 

2. Modifications. —Singular, possessive. 

3. Construction.— VIII. (b), modifying the noun \man\. 

Remark.—A n adjective modifying an implied noun takes the possessive case 
when the noun’s construction calls for that form. 

Examples for Practice. 

State the construction of each adjective in the following sentences. 
Tell what each modifies. Parse italicized words. 

1. There was a pause of death-like stillness ; and the bold heart of 
Macpherson grew faint. 2. Through the lightened air a higher lustre 
and a clearer calm, diffusive, tremble. 3. Red through the stormy vale 



SYNTAX, 


157 


comes down the stream. 4. You would not have me make a trial of 
my skill upon my child ! Impossible ! 5. A certain man had two 

sons. 6. His lips grow restless, and his smile is curled half into scorn. 
7. Mr. Winkle expressed exquisite delight, and looked exquisitely un¬ 
comfortable. 8. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals 
upon Facts : nothing else will ever be of any service to them. 9. “ You 
hard-headed, obstinate, crusty, musty, fusty, old savage!” said 1. 10. 

He sat at his door one midsummer night. 11. With the stupidest 
boys he was kind and cool. 12. “Very strange, very strange,” said 
Simonides ; “ but it is not so strange to me as that he should prefer to 
live poor when he could be so rich.” 13. With the exception of a few 
attempts at continuation, we find only standstill, and a gradual retro¬ 
gression of the Platonic philosophizing. 14. Look first to that curse of 
God—comfortless, as you all know, except by death—leprosy. 15. The 
moon, cold and pale, sinks into the western wave. 16. Swift and 
noiseless we are upon them. 17. Whelphy Whewell White was a 
whimsical, whining, whispering, whittling whistler. 18. They de¬ 
spised all the accomplishments and all the dignities of the world, confi¬ 
dent of the favor of God. 19. To master them in their multiplied 
combinations, is to render the lips and tongue exceedingly flexible and 
trustworthy. 

20. Nothing grand or beautiful grows, 

Save by gradual, slow degrees. 

21. Ask of thy mother earth why oaks are made 
Taller or stronger than the weeds they shade. 

22. Thou slave ! thou wretch ! thou coward ! 

Thou little valiant, great in villainy ! 

Thou ever strong upon the stronger side! 

23. Each year shall give this apple-tree 
A broader flush of roseate bloom, 

A deeper maze of verdurous gloom, 

And loosen, when the frost-clouds lower, 

The crisp brown leaves in thicker shower. 

24. He is condemned to that appalling interment, long, infallible, 
implacable, impossible to slacken or to hasten. 



158 


SYNTAX. 


25. There were swarms of curious, half-lizard, half-bird-like ani¬ 
mals on the land ; and they were of all sizes, some no bigger than a 
crow, and some as large as the albatross, measuring twelve feet across 
their outstretched wines. 

o 

26. They have likewise discovered two lesser stars, or satellites, 
which revolve about Mars ; whereof the innermost is distant from the 
centre of the primary planet exactly three of his diameters, and the 
outermost five ; the former revolves in the space of ten hours, and the 
latter in twenty-one and a half ; so that the squares of their periodic 
times are very near in the same proportion with the cubes of their 
distances from the centre of Mars; which evidently shows them to be 
governed by the same law of gravitation that influences the other 
heavenly bodies. 




CHAPTER XIII. 


CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

Construction Y.—Absolute. 

(b) By Exclamation. — “Well!” quoth the little Brook, 
“this is something like life.” 

(c) By Pleonasm.—“Possibly she—well, I am certain she 
has forgotten me.” 

(f) By response. —(i) “Which way did he go?” “ For¬ 
ward. ” (2) “Do you understand me?” “ Perfectly.” (3) 

“ Did you see him ?” “ Yes.” 

330. Some authors teach that yes, no, ay, yea, etc., when used in 
answer to questions, modify an entire sentence understood. This can 
not be true if it means that these words do anything more than indi¬ 
cate the quality of 'the sentence which might be used in answer to the 
question. The words themselves are complete answers, and when 
followed by answers in the form of sentences, the question receives 
double answers; as, “ Did you see him ? ” “ Yes, I saw him.” 

(g) By Interrogation. —“ I shall go to town.” “ When?” 

Item.— It is not necessary to supply other words in parsing adverbs 
in this construction. 

(h) Absolute as an Introductory Expletive .— Well, what shall 

we do now ? 


159 



i6o 


SYNTAX. 


(i) Absolute Adverbial—without a participle .— Truly , I do 
not know what to do. 

Construction VI.—In Apposition. 

(a) 1 n apposition with a Part of Speech , or something that has 
the construction of a Part of Speech. 

Examples. 

1. Principal term an Adverb.— He went immediately— as soon 
as he could arrange to do so. 

2. Principal term a Preposition and its Object.— He started 

WITHOUT DELAY— immediately. 

3. Principal term a Subordinate Sentence. —He started when 
HE RECEIVED your letter— immediately. 

Construction VII.—Object of a Preposition. 

Examples. 

1. Principal term a Noun.—Of my habits since then I shall not 
speak. 

2. Principal term a Verb.— I have not heard from him till now. 

3. Principal term an Adverb.— He went away from here yester¬ 
day. 

331. There should be no unwillingness to accept the fact that 
adverbs and adjectives may have this construction. A preposition 
always shows—never creates—an adjective or an adverbial relation; 
and it is undeniable that adverbs may occasionally assume the func¬ 
tions of adjectives, and vice versa. It may be urged that then and now , 
in the examples given, are substitutes for that time , and this time; but 
this is merely to say that adverbs, as substitutes for nouns, may some¬ 
times be used in this construction. No one will insist that a substitute 
for a noun must needs become a noun; for upon that hypothesis, pro¬ 
nouns would become nouns, and so would infinitives, participles, and 
sentences, when used in constructions possible for nouns. 




SYNTAX. 


161 


I append the following additional examples of adverbs in this con¬ 
struction : 

i. I have seen people like him before now. 2. I shall go from here 
to Chicago. 3. From there I shall go to New York. 4. Charles passed 
by here this morning. 5. Our journey from there was pleasant. 6. The 
road from here to town is in good condition. 7. They come from 
abroad. 8. I have not spoken to him above once or twice. 9. He has 
not been here, or around here , for more than a year. 10. From here 
to the state line the fare is three cents a mile, but beyond there it is five 
cents. 11. Speak to him at once. 

332. That the foregoing sentences are ‘‘correct English” no one 
will probably deny. The following examples, though frequently met in 
the works of our best writers—especially those of a generation ago, and 
earlier, are condemned by the grammarians-^/hwz thence, from hence, 
from whence, from whither , from thither, etc. 

By common consent, where should not be used as the object of at, to, 
etc., as in the following sentences: Where is your hat at? Where did 
he go to ? Where is he at? Where was I at? 

Construction Till.—Modifying a Noun, Pronoun, 
Adjective, Yerb, or Adverb without a Preposition to 
show the relation. 

(b) Modifying a Noun or Pronoun attributively to describe or 

s P ec tfy- Examples. 

Principal term a Noun. —(1) My stay here must be brief. (2) My 
thoughts then I can net describe. (3) My journey there was pleasant. 
(4) My resolution now was to return as speedily as possible. (5) Of my 
conduct then 1 shall not boast now. (6) My purpose then is not my pur¬ 
pose now. 

Note i.—I hesitate to say that now, in the last sentence, modifies the preceding 
word. 

Note 2.—I know of no good example cf a pronoun so modified by an adverb. 

Note 3.—It will be observed that the nouns in the foregoing examples are trans¬ 
muted verbs. 




162 


5 YN TAX. 


(c) Modifying a Verb, Adjective, or Adverb. 

Examples. 

1. Principal term a Verb.— He returned quickly. 

2. Principal term an Adjective.— You are very kind. 

3 * Principal term an Adverb.— He returned very quickly. 

Construction X.—Connecting terms Copulatively 
or Adversatively. 

Examples. 

1. Connect’ng terms Copulatively.— From Chicago we went to 
Philadelphia, where we remained a week. 

2. Connecting terms Adversatively.— You said you had talked 
with John, when you had not even seen him. 

Item. —In the first example, where is equivalent to and there. In 
the second example when is equivalent to but. Additional examples of 
the use of adverbs as co"rdinative connectives are seen in the follow¬ 
ing sentences: 1. He is in Europe, where he is trying to organize a 
company to build a railroad. 2. He is at Topeka, whence he expects 
to go to New Orleans. 3. Do as you please, only let your intentions be 
apparent. 4. You seemed to be a friend, while all the time you were 
plotting to accomplish my ruin. 5. We shall remain till Christmas, 
when we expect to return. 

Construction XI.—Introducing a Sentence or a 
Member of a Sentence. 

Examples. 

1. Lbed as a Subordinate Conjunction.—(1) I will go when he 
returns. (2) Whereas it has come to the knowledge of this body that 
great distress exists in various parts of the country, etc. 

Item. —In the first example, when equals at which,—at the time being 
implied after will go. In the second example, whereas is equivalent to 
since or because. 




SYNTAX. 


163 


2. Used as an Introductory Expletive—not Absolute.— There 
was a man here this morning. 

Rem. 1 . — There is the only adverb that can have this construction. 
Rem. 2 .—This use of there is similar to the use of it as an anticipa¬ 
te expletive. Each takes the place of the real subject of the verb, 
for the purpose of allowing the subject to follow the verb; and neither 
has any other function in the sentence. 

Exercises in Parsing Adverbs. 

The Steps. 

1. Classify the word. 

2. State its modifications. 

3. State its construction. 

4. If it can be compared, state by which method, and 
give the different forms. 

5. If a conjunctive adverb, state whether it is co- 
ordinative or subordinative, and tell what it connects, or 
introduces. 

Models. 

1. 

Sentence. 

He did the work well. 

Parsing. 

Well: 

1. Classification— Adverb, of manner, expresses quality, modifying, 
simple. 

2. Modification.— Positive degree. 

3. Construct on. —VIII. (c), modifying the verb did. 

4. Compared irregularly — well, better , best. 



SYNTAX. 


164 


II. 

Sentence. 

Eloquence, to produce her full effect, should start from the head of 
the orator, like Minerva from the head of Jove, completely armed and 
equipped. 

Parsing. 

Completely : 

1. Classifications.— Adverb, of degree, expresses sufficiency, modi¬ 
fying. simple. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction. —V 111 . (c), modifying the verbs armed and equipped. 

III. 

Sentence. 

Why did you send for me ? 

Parsing. 

Why: 

1. Classification.— Adverb, of illation, interrogative, simple. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction— VIII. (c), modifying the verb did send. 

IV. 

Sentence. 

From there we went to Chicago. 

Parsing. 

There: 

1. Classification. —Adverb, of place in which, modifying, simple. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction. —VII., Object of the preposition from, modifying 
the verb went. 

V. 

Sentence. 

Well, gentlemen and brothers, cried the kettle again, don’t be down¬ 
hearted. 





SYNTAX . 


165 


Parsing. 

Well: 

1. Classification. —Adverb, of manner, expresses quality, modifying, 
simple. 

2. Modifications.— Positive degree. 

3. Construction. —V., absolute as an introductory expletive. 

4. Compared irregidarly — well, better , best. 

VI. 

Sentence. 

Aristotle says that upon the river Hypanis, in Asia, there exist little 
insects who live only an hour, and that many generations of them pass 
away in a day. 

Parsing. 

There: 

1. Classification. —Adverb, of place in which, modifying, simple. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction .—XI., having the position of the subject of the verb 
exist , and thus allowing the subject, little insects who live only an hour , 
to follow the verb. 

VII. 

Sentence. 

We went to Chicago, where we remained a week. 

Parsing. 

Where: 

1. Classification.— Adverb, of place in which, conjunctive, simple. 

2. Modifications. —N one. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (c), modifying the verb remained. 

4. As a conjunction, coordinative; connecting the two sentences, 
We went to Chicago , and where we remained a week. 

VIII. 

Sentence. 

And, when he had spent all, there arose a mighty famine in the 
land; and he began to be in want. 



i66 


SYNTAX. 


Parsing. 

When: 

1. Classification. —Adverb, of time past, modifying, simple. 

2. Modifications. —None. 

3. Construction. —VIII. (c), modifying the verb had spent. 

4. As a conjunction, subordinate; introducing the sentence, when 
he had spent all. 

Examples for Parsing. 

1. It is as cold as ice. 2. Iam daily with you. 3. Come hither, 
my little page. 4. The harder he tries the less progress he makes. 

5. Whence and what art thou, execrable shape. 6. Are you going to 
town now ? No. 7. Very likely I shall go to-morrow. 8. I know 
why he has gone away. 9. He cut the ice through. 10. How far have 
they gone ? 11. Perhaps our friends have returned. 12. Far from the 

busy scenes of life dwelt a pious recluse. 13. I think he will surely 
come back. 14. Come whenever you can do so. 15. He taught the 
doubtful battle where to rage. 16. Sail on, sail on, O Ship of State. 

17. And he fain would have filled himself with the husks that the 
swine did eat. 

18. Alone in his castle, with the grim faces of his ancestors looking 
down upon him from the wall, Sir Guy paced to and fro with hurried 
step. 

19. “ A little investment that I made some ten years ago,” replied 
Mr. Barton, smiling, “ has recently proved exceedingly profitable.” 

20. “Some words sound out like drums; some breathe memories 
sweet as flutes; some call like a clarionet; some shout a charge like 
trumpets; some are as sweet as children’s talk; others, rich as a mother’s 
answering back.” 

21. He could not see his verses burn, 

Although his brain was fried ; 

And ever and anon he bent 
To wet them as they dried. 




SYNTAX. 


167 


22. At first in Eden’s bowers they say, 

No sound of speech had Adam caught; 

But whistled like a bird all day, 

And maybe ’twas for want of thought. 

23. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, 
And still where many a garden flower grows wild, 
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 
The village preacher’s modest mansion rose. 

24. Unhappy White ! while life was in its spring, 

And thy young muse just waved her joyous wing ; 
The spoiler swept that soaring lyre away, 

Which else had sounded an immortal lay. 

25. And now, what were you, if none did for you 
What you ne’er did and ne’er can do for them ? 

For what can you return to God for all ? 

Your very spirit means His spirit—given ; 

Then like that spirit, freely, purely, truly, 

Divinely, do for every one your best. 

Thus only can you live in righteousness, 

In heavenly peace, joyful, and free from care ; 

Thus will you live even as His spirit lives ; 

Thus will you in his very kingdom dwell. 



CHAPTER XIV. 


CONSTRUCTION OF FINITE VERBS. 

Construction XII.—Predicating action or the suf¬ 
fering of an action, being or the state of being. 

Examples. —He shut the door; The door was shut; There are 
seven men here ; The tree is tall; John is a scholar. 

Rem. —The word predicate is derived from the Latin, free, before, 
and dicare, to declare, publish, proclaim. As a verb, it signifies 
affirm, declare , assert , affirm as an attribute or quality of some thing. As 
here employed, it includes affirming , denying , interrogating , command¬ 
ing, etc v 

333. That concerning which a verb expresses action or the suffering 
of an action, being or state of being, is the subject of the verb. 

334. A verb may have a compound subject, and two or more verbs 
may have the same subject ; as, (1) John and James study ; (2) John 
studies and RECITES ; (3) John and James study and recite. 

335. Position. —A verb usually follows its subject, but may pre¬ 
cede it; as, Come YE in peace, or come YE in war? Then burst his 
mighty heart. 

Rein.—A finite verb may be in apposition with another ; as, I think 
he will SUCCEED— accomplish his undertaking. 

336 . Person and Number.— It is usually stated that 
finite verbs must agree with their subjects in person and 


168 



SYNTAX. 


169 


number. This means that the verb, so far as possible, 
should take a form appropriate to the meaning of its subject. 

As to Person. 

337. If the subject denotes the speaker, the verb should be in the 
first person; as, l am, l move, I shall go, I am walking. 

338. If the subject denotes the person spoken to, the verb should be 
in the second person; as, Thou art, Thou movest, Thou mayst be. 

339. If the subject denotes the person or thing spoken of the verb 
should be in the third person ; as, He is, He moves, The man speaks , 
He is walking. 

Rem.—When two or more nouns or pronouns connected by or ox nor 
are used as the subject of a verb, the verb should agree with the one 
nearest it; as, Either John or YOU are to blame ; Neither John nor I 
am to blame ; Neither you nor I am to blame. 

As to Number. 

340. If the subject denotes one, the verb should be in the singular 
number. 

(See foregoing examples.) 

341. If the subject denotes more than one, the verb should be in 
the plural number ; as, We are , They move, They were rescued, John 
and James are here. 

Exceptions and Peculiarities. 

1. A collective noun in the singular number may be plural in 
meaning, i. e., instead of saying the members of the congregation, the 
individuals of the jury , the men composing the army, etc., we may use the 
words, the congregation , the jury , the army, etc. A verb which refers for 
its subject to a collective noun so used should agree with the meaning , 
not the form of its subject; as, The congregation were delighted; 
The JURY have rendered their verdict. 

2. The form of the subject may be plural but its meaning singular. 




SYNTAX. 


170 


In such case the verb should be singular; as, Young’s Night 
Thoughts is an excellent poem. 

3. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected by and 
usually require the verb to be in the plural number; as, John and 
James have recited. To this, however, there are some exceptions : 

(a) If the nouns are but different names for the same object, the 
verb should be singular; as, 

A laggard in love and a dastard in war 
Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. 

(b) If the connected nouns name different parts of a compound 
whole to which the verb refers, the verb should be singular ; as, A 
block and TACKLE was used. Bread and milk was given to all. 

(c) If the connected nouns are taken distributively, the verb should 
be singular ; as, Every man, woman, and child was saved. 

Rem.— Sometimes with , or as well as, is used as a substitute for and. 
When this is the case, many good writers use the verb in the plural 
number: as, The King, with the LORDS and COMMONS constitute our 
government; Pompey as well as Caesar were great men; 

The spacious firmament on high, 

With all the blue ethereal sky, 

And spangled heavens, a shining frame, 

Their great original proclaim. 

—Andrew Marvel. 

This usage is condemned by most grammarians, however, and is 
probably no more defensible than the use of plural pronouns in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences : Every one should study their lessons; Every one 
must judge of their own feelings. 

4. If two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected by or or 
nor are used as the subject of a verb, the verb should be singular ; as, 
Either John or James was there. If, however, one of the connected 
nouns is plural, the verb must be plural; as, Neither John nor his 
brothers were to blame. 



SYNTAX. 


171 


Exercises in Parsing Finite Verbs. 

The Steps. 

1. Classify the word. 

2. State its modifications. 

3. Tell its construction— i.e. state to what it relates for its subject. 

4. Give the principal parts of irregular verbs. 

Models. 

I. 

Sentence. 

Character is a mirror, which reflects in after life the images first 
presented to it. 

Parsing. 

Is: 

1. Classification. —Verb, irregular, intransitive, simple. 

2. Modifications. —Ordinary, active, indicative, present, third, sin¬ 
gular. 

3. Construction. —XII., relates to the noun character for its subject. 

4. Principal Parts — am, was, being, been. 

Reflects: 

1. Classification. —Verb, regular, transitive, simple. 

2. Modifications— Ordinary, active, indicative, present, third, singu¬ 
lar. 

3. Construction. —XII., relates to the pronoun which for its subject. 

Sentence. 

Humility lodged in a worthy mind is always attended with a certain 
homage, which no haughty soul can purchase. 

Parsing. 

IS ATTENDED : 

1. Classification.— Verb, regular, transitive, complex, of which 
attended is the principal verb and is is auxiliary. 

2. Modifications. —Ordinary, passive, indicative, present, third, 
singular. 



172 


SYNTAX. 


3. Construction. —XII., relates to the noun humility for its subject. 
Can purchase: 

1. Classification—X t rb, regular, transitive, complex, of which 
purchase is the principal verb and can is auxiliary. 

2. Modifications.— Ordinary, active, potential, present, (third), 
(singular). 

3. Construction .—XII., relates to the noun soul for its subject. 
Sentence. 

I am trying to do my duty in the sphere which it appears to be my 
lot to occupy. 

Parsing. 

Am trying : 

1. Classification. —Verb, regular, transitive, complex, of which 
trying is the principal verb and am is auxiliary. 

2. Modifications. —Progressive, active, indicative, present, first, 
singular. 

3. Construction. —XII., relates to the pronoun / for its subject. 



CHAPTER XV. 


INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPIALS. 

342. The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb 
which in modern English is generally preceded by the sign 
to, and expresses the act, state, etc., without limitation of 
person or number. 

343. The Participial Mode is that form of the verb 
which never is preceded by the sign to, and expresses the 
act, state, etc., without limitation of person or number. 

Infinitives. 

344. Every infinitive has a subject , expressed or implied ; as, ‘We 
wish him to go,’ ‘ To succeed was impossible.’ 

The subject of to go is him. The subject of to succeed ’, by implication, is person , 
or some other word. 

Rem.—I t is never neccessary to supply the subject of an infinitive in order to 
dispose of the infinitive. 

345. Though the form of an infinitive is not affected by the person 
or number of its subject, the subject is considered a modifier of the 
infinitive. To illustrate: the expression, ‘ To parse this word is im¬ 
possible,’ is general, and probably untrue ; while, ‘ For me to parse this 
word is impossible,’ is particular, and may be true. 

346. The subject of an infinitive is frequently introduced by the 
expletive for, which in such cases is not a preposition but a conjunc¬ 
tion. 


173 



174 


SYNTAX. 


347. To, the sign of the infinitive, was formerly a preposition, but 
is now used before the infinitive without reference to the relation of the 
latter. 

Rem. i. —Grammarians insist that nothing should come between 
the infinitive and its sign. If, however, an appeal be taken from dic¬ 
tum to usage, it will be found that the rule is respected by compara¬ 
tively few of the great English or American authors, living or dead. 

Rem. 2. —Colloquially, an infinitive after to, when it is a repetition 
of a preceding infinitive, is often omitted; as, I don’t go because I don’t 
wish to. 

348. As to tense, the infinitive has but two general forms, called, 
respectively, the Present , and the Perfect , distinguished from each 
other by the use of the auxiliary verb, have , in the perfect, and its 
absence in the present. 

349. In the case of verbs which can be used in the active voice, 
the number of different infinitive forms is four, which, in the ordinary 
style, are shown below: 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Present, to sing. to be sung. 

Perfect, to have sung. to have been sung. 

In the progressive style the forms are as follows : 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE* 

Present , to be singing. to be being sung. 

Perfect, to have been singing, to have been being sung. 

* Note. —The passive progressive infinitives are rarely employed. 

350. The present infinitive expresses the act, state, etc., without 
reference to time or completeness. The perfect infinitive expresses 
the act, state, etc., as completed at the time denoted by the finite 
verb in connection with which the infinitive is used. Thus, in the sen¬ 
tence, ‘ The class was to recite,’ to recite gives no idea of time or of the 
completeness of the act; but in the sentence, ‘The class was to have 



SYNTAX. 


1 75 


recited,’ to have recited denotes that the act was to be completed prior 
to the time referred to by was. 

351. When the present infinitive is the object, or the factitive 
object, of bid, make, need, hear, let, see,feel, dare, have, help, find, and 
equivalents of see , or modifies the intransitive verb , please, the sign to 
is usually omitted from the ordinary active form, and to be from the 
passive voice and the progressive style; as, ‘ Bid him [to] come' * We 
had him [to be] punished ,’ 1 We heard the board-nails [to be] snapping 
in the frost.’ 

Item. 1.—The perfect infinitive may, or may not retain the sign in such construc¬ 
tions, but examples of either case are not numerous. 

Item. 2 .—Some authors state that the sign to is omitted after the verbs bid, make , 
need, have, etc. This rule is open to criticism : 

1. To is seldom omitted when the infinitive follows any of these verbs in the 
passive voice ; and when it is so omitted, the ellipsis is not on account of the verb 
which the preposition follows, but to save needless repetition, as in the sentence 
quoted in Remark 3. 

2. When have denotes duty, necessity, or the like, and when need is not modified 
by an adverb of negation, the sign of the objective infinitive is retained ; as, (1) We 
had to study. (2) You need to study. 

Rem. 3 .—The sign is often omitted to avoid needless repetitions ; as, “ It is better 
to be a slave and [to] live than [to] be a king and [to] die." Also, when the infini¬ 
tive is the object of a preposition, to is sometimes omitted ; as, I will do any thing 
but sing. 

352. The subject of an infinitive, if a pronoun having that form, 
should be in the objective case. If the subject be the third, singular, 
feminine, of the personal pronoun, it should be in the possessive case. 
(Why?) If the subject is a noun, or any other pronoun wanting the 
objective case, it should be in the nominative case. 

353. The present infinitive, without the sign to, is combined with 
do, can may, must, shall, and will, to form many of the tenses of the 
finite verbs ; as, ‘ I shall\t 6 \ study] 1 We must [to] go,' etc. 

Rem. 1.— When so used the infinitive and auxiliary are treated as a complex 
word of which the infinitive is the principal verb. 

Rem. 2 . —In the case of all verbs except to be, the present infinitive without its 
sign is always the same in form as the first, singular, indicative, active. 



176 


SYNTAX. 


Participles. 

354. As to tense, participles are of three kinds, the Present , the 
Past, and the Perfect; and the participles of any verb which can be 
used in the passive voice are further distinguished as active and passive, 
thus making six forms, as follows : 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Present, singing, being sung. 

Past, sung, been sung. 

Perfect, having sung, having been sung . 

355. The present and the perfect participles always have subjects, 
expressed or implied, but the past participle never has a subject ex¬ 
pressed. (Perhaps, logically, one in implied.) 

356. As already stated, the present participle is combined with the 
verb be to form the progressive style ; and the past participle is com¬ 
bined with the verb have to form the perfect tenses. 

R em ,_\Vhen used in such combinations, the participle is not parsed separately, 
but is considered the principal verb. 

357. When a participle is used in any other way than that men¬ 
tioned in the last paragraph, it is said to be used participially. The 
perfect participles are always used participially, but the past passive 
participle never is. The other participles are used either paiticipially 
or in combinations When the past active participle is used participially, 
it is always passive in meaning. 

358. A participle may become a participial noun by the use of a 
preceding article or adjective. If the participle has an object, the 
preposition of is commonly used to show the new relation which the 
object assumes when the participle ceases to be a verb and becomes a 
noun; as, ‘ Whipping [verb] children is barbarous ’; changed, ‘ The 
whipping [noun] of children is barbarous.’ 

359. Many authors insist that a participle must not be modified by 
an adjective— i. e., that when modified by an adjective, the participle 



SYNTAX. 


177 


becomes a noun, and if transitive must be followed by a preposition. 
Usage, however, does not appear to be uniform. Thus, we find good 
writers who would say, “The reading many books will not make one 
wise.” Commonly, however, especially among modern writers, the 
word of would be inserted after reading. 

360. A participle may become a participial adjective ; as, ‘ A run¬ 
ning stream,’ ‘ An educated man.’ 

Rem.—Participial nouns and adjectives must not be confused with participles 
having the constructions of nouns and adjectives. 

361. The subject of a participle, if a noun, or if a pronoun having 
that form, should take the possessive case. 

362. Many authors teach that infinitives and participles are not 
verbs. It is said that the infinitive is a noun, and that the participle 
is a distinct part of speech. There are many reasons for rejecting 
these views. 

1. Both express action, being, etc. 

(What is a verb?) 

2. Both may have subjects. 

(Do nouns?) 

3. Both may be transitive, and govern objects. 

(May nouns ? ) 

4. Both may always be modified by adverbs. 

(Nouns may sometimes be, but are not often.) 

5. Both are used as essential parts of finite verbs; hence, 

(a) If the participle were not a verb, no form of which the parti¬ 
ciple is the base could be a verb. Therefore, no verb could have the 
passive voice, or a perfect tense in the active voice. (Why ? ) 

(b) If the infinitive were not a verb, no verb could have a primary 
tense in the active voice, potential mode. (Why ?) Nor the future 
tense, indicative mode. (Why ?) 

Note. —The list of objections to the doctrine that infinitives and participles are 
not verbs may be extended indefinitely. Det the student offer others. Any reason 
which may be urged in favor of calling the infinitive a noun, would go to prove 




i7» 


SYNTAX. 


that the pronoun is a noun, or that the infinitive is a pronoun. It should be 
borne in mind that the etymological use of a word determines what part of speech 
it is ; the syntactical use (*. e. construction) never does. 

Rem. 1. —Some authors call the present participle “the 
infinitive in ing,” or “the gerund,” when it is used in certain 
constructions possible for a noun; as, ‘ I enjoy reading,’ ‘John 
delights in driving horses,’ ‘Depriving you of pleasure gives 
me pain,’ etc. 

Rem. 2. —Neither infinitives nor participles are adequately 
defined in the dictionaries, though a little improvement has 
been made upon the definitions given in Webster’s “Una¬ 
bridged.” Whenever it is practicable, the “ International,” 
“Century,” and “Imperial,”' should be consulted by the 
student in preparing for a recitation on these forms of the 
verb. 

Holbrook’s Remark.— “Both the infinitive and participle 
are infinite, because both are unlimited by person and num¬ 
ber. Both are participial, because both partake of the nature 
of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.” 

Note.— Strictly speaking, infinitives and participles do not “ partake of the 
nature of the nouns, adjectives, or adverbs” ; but both may, while retaining the 
“ nature ” of verbs, participate in the functions of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

Constructions. 

363. Infinitives and participles do not have person or number. 

They merely assume action, being, etc., on the part of their subjects. 

These facts make it possible to use them in constructions which are 
not possible for finite verbs, and prevent their use (except in combina¬ 
tions) in the ordinary constructions of finite verbs. 

Construction I.—Subject of a Finite Verb. 



SYNTAX. 


179 


Examples.—(1) For me to return was impossible. (2) His studying 
so diligently is commendable. 

364. Position . —Infinitives and participles in this con¬ 
struction usually precede the verbs of which they are sub¬ 
jects, but may follow them ; as, (1) It is impossible to return. 
(2) I believe that his taking the horse without permission 
will be pardoned more readily than will be his over-driving 
the animal. 

Rem.—When an infinitive is the subject of a verb in the passive 
voice, the subject of the infinitive may precede, and the infinitive 
follow the verb; as, The lake is thought to be deep. 

Construction II.—Object of a Transitive Verb in 
the Active Voice. 

Examples.—(i) I wish to return. (2) He mentioned your having 
called. 

365. Position. —Infinitives and participles in this con¬ 
struction usually follow the verbs of which they are the 
objects, but may precede them ; as, (1) To return , under the 
circumstances, he would not undertake. (2) Your mis¬ 
taking me for my friend I will fully pardon. 

Construction III.—Complement of a Copulative Verb. 

Examples.—(1) To save is to earn twice. (2) Seeing is believing. 

366. Position. —Infinitives and participles in this con¬ 
struction follow the copulas of which they are complements. 

Rem. 1.—Care must be taken to discriminate between present par¬ 
ticiples in this construction and those used in combination with the 




i8o 


SYNTAX. 


verb be to form the progressive style. Thus, in the example given, 
observe that is believing does not express an act, but that it asserts that 
seeing is identical with believing. 

Rem. 2 . - Some authors teach that in such expressions as. “ We are 
to go next week,” to go is not the complement of are, but that expect- 
ing or intending is understood after are, and that the infinitive is the 
object of the verb in the progressive style. (See Holbrook’s Grammar, 

Art. 8 93 -) f , 

The thought, however, often requires the insertion of the past parti¬ 
ciple • and it is often impossible to determine whether the past or the 
present participle is implied. Thus, in the sentence quoted, we can¬ 
not determine whether the meaning is, ‘ We are expecting to go next 
week,’ or, ‘ We are expected to go next week.’ If the past participle is 
inserted the verb is in the passive voice, and the infinitive, to be its 
object, must also be its subject. 

This construction is perplexing, and ‘The authorities” fail to throw 
much light upon it. The Century Dictionary says : “ An infinitive with 
to after be forms a sort of future, with a certain implication of obliga¬ 
tion ; thus, he is to come, they were to appear, she would have been to 
blame or to be blamed”—an explanation which makes clear what we 
already understand, but which affords no great assistance in parsing the 

infinitive. . 

What we have to deal with are really unperfected forms very similar 

to certain mode and tense forms which have had places assigned to 
them in the conjugations. Thus : 

(1) We are to go = We shall [to] go, or, We must [to] go. 

(2) They were to go = They would [to] go, or, They might [to] go. 

(3) Where am 1 to sit ? = Where shall I [to] sit ? or, Where must 
I [to] sit? 

In most cases, some form of have may be substituted for be without 
greatly changing the sense. Thus, 

(1) We are to go = We have to go. 

(2) He is to go = He has to go. 





SYNTAX. 


181 


(3) Where am I to sit ?l£= Where have I to sit ? 

The verb be is intransitive, however, while have is transitive. In my 
own classes, I have followed the practice of supplying an assumed 
ellipsis after the verb be. Thus, (i) He is to go = He is [expected] to 
go. (2) Where am I to sit ? = Where am I [expected] to sit ? (3) We 
were to play ball to-day = We were [expecting or intending] to play 
ball to-day ; or, We were [expected] to play ball to-day. In dealing 
with sentences like the third, the student is permitted to disclaim any 
responsibility for ambiguity, but is required to dispose of the infinitive 
disjunctively. 

Construction IY.—Subject of a Not-finite Verb. 

(a) Subject of an Infinitive. 

Examples.—(1) We believed to return TO be impossible, or, We 
believed it TO BE impossible to return. (2) He thought studying 
Greek TO be a waste of time. 

367. Position.— Participles in this construction precede 
the infinitives of which they are subjects ; infinitives may 
either precede or follow. 

(b) Subject of a Participle. 

Examples.—(1) We had no doubt of its being impossible to return. 
(2) “ The boy had hope of his having lost the money being forgiven.” 

368. Position.— Participles in this construction precede 
the participles of which they are subjects; infinitives may 
either precede or follow. 

Hern.—In general a sentence containing a participle in this con¬ 
struction is awkward and, when spoken, ambiguous. In the example 
given, change being forgiven to would be forgiven and note the im¬ 
provement. 



SYNTAX. 


182 


Construction Y — Absolute. 


(b) By Exclamation. 

Examples.— (1) “To die,—to sleep, — to sleep / — perchance to 
dream!—aye, there’s the rub.” (2) 1 ‘ Shivering / Hark! He mutters 
brokenly now.” 

(c) By Pleonasm. 

Examples.— (1) To die , it is a horrible thought. (2) Running up 
stairs—exercise like that is too violent. 


(d) By Inscription. 

Examples.—(1) 


To Let. 


(2) 


Sold. 


Note.—T he words are supposed to be announcements on placards. 

(f) By Response. 


Examples. — (1) “ What do you advise now ? ” “ To return, if possi¬ 
ble.” (2) “ By what occupation do you make a livelihood ? ” “ Selling 
papers.” 

Rem.—It is unnecessary to supply other words in parsing to return and selling. 


(g) By Interrogation. 

Examples. — (1) “ Do you know what I intend to do now ? ” “ To re¬ 
turn! (2) “ Do you know what occupation 1 expect to engage in ? ” 
“ Selling papers ? ” 

(j) Adverbial—with or without a participle. 


Examples. 

1 . With a Participle.— (1) To proceed being impossible, we re¬ 
mained where we were ; (2) Talking aloud HAVING BEEN forbidden, 
we conversed in whispers. 

2 . Without a Participle. — (1) To speak plainly, you are in fault; 
(2) Strictly speaking , there was no battle. 





SYNTAX. 


183 


Construction YI.—In Apposition. 

(a) In Apposition with a Part of Speech , or something having 
the construction of a Part of Speech. 

Examples. 

1 . Principal term a Noun.—(1) This is my purpose, to practice 
economy. (2) One feature of the program— ringing the bell so vio¬ 
lently—should be omitted from future performances. 

2 . Principal term a Pronoun.—(1) You, young, ardent, patriotic 
—soon to shed your blood, if need be, in cause of God and country 
—know full well what that word honor means. (2) “ Yes, it was HE, 
alive and well, bringing joy and peace to those who long had mourned 
for him as dead.” 

3 . Principal term an Adjective.—(1) Poor health has made him 
FRETFUL — disposed to complaining impatience; (2) All things are 
READY —suitably provided and arranged. 

Note. —In the first example, to be is omitted before disposed, because the infini¬ 
tive is in apposition with the factitive object of made. Were fretful omitted, the 
infinitive would be the factitive object of made, and to be would be omitted in 
accordance with the principle stated in Article 332 ; and the sentence would read, 
Poor health made him disposed to complaining impatience. 

4 . Principal term an Infinitive.—“ To die,— to sleep— to sleep! 
—perchance to dream .” 

5 . Principal term a Participle.— Her ambassador being recog¬ 
nized — acknowledged and accepted by the government, England cannot 
refuse to receive ours. 

Note.—I know of no good example of a participle in apposition with an infini¬ 
tive, or of an infinitive in apposition with a participle. 

0 . Principal term an Adverb.—(1) He spoke audibly— & be 
heard. (2) He proceeded OSTENTATIOUSLY — making a vain display. 

Construction VII—Object of a Preposition. 



SYNTAX. 


184 


Examples. 

1 . Principal term a Noun.—(1) I can recommend nothing but 
to return. (2) I have lost all hope of his paying me the money. 

2 . Principal term an Adjective.— (1) I am anxious for him to 
return. (2) We are hopeful of his doing better. 

3 . Principal term a Verb.— (1) “ What went you out for to see ?” 
(2) We wait for his returning. 

Note. —The use of an infinitive as the object of for—as shown in the first exam¬ 
ple—is now obsolete except in the solemn style. 

4 . Principal term an Adverb.— He spoke too rapidly for me to 
understand. 

Note.— I know of no good example of a participle in this construction. 

Construction VIII.—Modifying a Noun, Pronoun, 
Adjective, Verb, or Adverb, without a Preposition to 
show the relation. 

(a) Modifying a Noun or Pronoun attributively , to describe or 
specify. 

Examples. 

1 . Principal term a Noun.— (1) A determination to succeed 
often makes one successful. (2) The MAN standing by the window is 
my friend. 

2 . Principal term a Pronoun.— He being willing, why should you 
object. 

Note.— I know of no good example of an infinitive modifying a pronoun in this 
manner. 

(c) Modifying an Adjective , Verb, or Adverb. 

Examples. 

1 . Principal term an Adjective.— (1) Apples are GOOD to eat. 

(2) He was very anxious concerning his son’s health. 




SYNTAX. 


185 


Note. —Many authors treat concerning, regarding, respecting , touching, etc., as 
prepositions, when used as the equivalents of in regard to, in respect to, in relation 
to, etc. The Century Dictionary speaks of them as “^warf-prepositions.” There is 
no question, however, as to their being primarily participles, and I have preferred 
to treat them as such in parsing and analysis. 

2 . Principal term a Verb.—(1) He returned to make an apology. 
(2) He STOOD gazing on the scene. 

Factitive Object.—(1) We ma.de him [ ] sing. ( 2\ He considered your suc¬ 

ceeding his failing. 

3 . Principal term an Adverb.—I am old-fashioned enough to 
admire Lord Bacon. 

Note.—I know of no good example of a participle used in this manner. 

Exercises in Parsing Infinitives and Participles. 
The Steps. 

1. Classify the word. 

2. State its modifications. 

3. State its construction. 

4. If its subject is expressed, mention it. 

5. If irregular, or redundant, give its principal parts. 

Models. 

1. 

Sentence. 

To do this work is impossible. 

Parsing. 

To DO: 

1. Classification. —Verb, irregular, transitive, simple. 

2. Modifications. —Ordinary, active, infinitive, present. 

3. Construction. —I., subject of the verb is. 

4. Principal parts, — Do, did , doing, done. 



186 


SYNTAX. 


II. 

Sentence. 

We do not wish John to study law. 

Parsing. 

To STUDY : 

1. Classification.- —Verb, regular, transitive, simple. 

2 . Modifications.— Ordinary, active, infinitive, present. 

3. Construction. —II., object of the verb wish. 

4. Subject .— John. 

III. 

Sentence. 

The answer to this question is to be found in the nature of the mind 
itself. 

Parsing. 

TO BE FOUND : 

1. Classification.- —Verb, regular, transitive, complex. 

2. Modifications.— Ordinary, passive, infinitive, present. 

3. Construction. —III., the complement of the verb is. 

IV. 

Sentence. 

To rescue this circle of studies from inadequate conceptions, and to 
lay the ground for a true idea of them, I have proposed to term them 
Homerology. 

Parsing. 

To rescue : 

1. Classification.— Verb, regular, transitive, simple. 

2. Modifications.— Ordinary, active, infinitive, present. 

3. Construction.— VIII. (c), modifying the verb have proposed, 

V. 

Sentence. 

We saw three geese flying northward. 



SYNTAX. 


187 


Parsing. 

[To be] flying : 

1. Classification. —Verb, irregular, intransitive, complex. 

2. Modifications. —Progressive, active, infinitive, present. 

3. Construction — II., object of the verb saw. 

4. Subject. — Geese. 

5. Principal parts.—Fly, flew, flying, flown. 

VI. 

Sentence. 

It is difficult for the most cool-headed impostor long to personate an 
enthusiast without in some degree believing what he is so eager to have 
believed. 

Parsing. 

TO PERSONATE : 

i t — Classification. —Verb, regular, transitive, simple. 

2. —Modifications— Ordinary, active, infinitive, present. 

3. — Construction. —I., subject of is. 

4. — Subject.—Impostor. 

Believing : 

1 — Classification.— Verb, regular, transitive, simple. 

2.—Modifications.—' Ordinary, active, participial, present. 

^_ Construction. —VII., object of the preposition without, modifying 

the verb to personate. 

TO HAVE: 

1 .—Classification .—Verb, irregular, transitive, simple. 

2.— Modifications.— Ordinary, active, infinitive, present. 

3]_ Construction. —VIII. (c), modifying the adjective eager. 

4.— Principal parts. — Have, had, having, had. 

[To BE] BELIEVED : 

I — Classification.— Verb, regular, transitive, complex. 

2.— Modifications «Ordinary, passive, infinitive, present. 

2— Construction. —II., object of the verb to have . 



188 


SYNTAX. 


VII. 

Sentence. 

Having been informed of the nature of the accusation, he desired to 
meet his traducers face to face. 

Parsing. 

Having been informed: 

1. Classification. —Verb, regular, transitive, complex. 

2. Modifications. —Ordinary, passive, participial, perfect. 

3. Construction. —V. (j) absolute adverbial, modifying desired. 


Sentence. 


VIII. 


An’t were not for thy hoary beard, 

Such hand as Marmion’s had not spared 
To cleave the Douglas’ head ! 

Parsing. 

TO CLEAVE: 

1. Classification .—Verb, redundant, transitive, simple. 

2. Modifications. —Ordinary, active, infinitive, present. 

3. Construction. —II., object of the verb had spared. 

4. Principal parts.—Cleavej clave , cleft ox clovej cleavingj cleft or 

cloven. 


Examples for Practice. 

State the construction of each infinitive and participle in the follow¬ 
ing sentences. Supply all omissions, and tell why the words supplied 
have been omitted. If a subject is expressed, mention it. Parse the 
italicized words. 

1. He chanced to see a bee hovering over a flower. 2. Was he not 
to secure Euboea against all attacks by sea? 3. Was he not to make 
Boeotia our barrier on the midland side ? 4. Was he not to attend with 
due precaution to the importation of corn ? 5. Think how much work 



SYNTAX. 


189 


is done by burning coal. 6. To be, or not to be,—that is the question. 
7. Bursting his bonds, he sprung upon the foe. 8. Much I marveled 
this ungainly fowl to hear discourse so plainly. 9. Bid each retainer 
arm with speed. 10. Linked to thy side, through every chance 1 go. 
11. Taking balloons as they are, “for better or worse,” let us, for once, 
have an aerial flight. 12. Does the gentleman suppose it is in his 
power to exhibit in Carolina a name so bright as to produce envy in my 
bosom? 13. It is our duty to pity, to support, to defend, and to relieve 
the oppressed. 14. His care was to polish the country by art, as he had 
protected it by arms. 15. It is useless to expatiate upon the beauties of 
nature to one who is blind. 16. Dryden’s page is a natural field, rising 
into inequalities, varied by exuberant vegetation ; Pope’s is a velvet 
lawn, shaven by the scythe and leveled by the roller. 17. He woke to 
die mid flame and smoke. 18. I had never heard a servant scolded, nor 
even suddenly, passionately, or in any severe manner blamed. 19. As 
you pass the open window, you hear whole platoons of high-pitched 
voices discharging words of two or three syllables. 20. The voice of the 
officer in command is heard reproving some raw recruit whose vocal 
musket hung fire. 

21. I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, 

But here am I to speak what I do know. 

22. No farther seek his merits to disclose, 

Or draw his frailties from their dread abode. 

23. To do aught good never will be our task, 

But ever to do ill our sole delight. 

24. First fear his hand, its skill to try, 

Amid the chords bewildered laid. 

25. Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens 
To wash this crimson hand as white as snow ? 

26. Heard ye those loud complaining waves, 

That shook Cecropia’s pillared state ? 



190 


SYNTAX. 


Saw ye the mighty from their graves 
Look up, and tremble at her fate ? 

27. Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come, 
Revenge yourselves alone on Cassius; 

For Cassius is aweary of the world, 

Hated by one he loves, braved by his brother. 
Checked like a bondman, all his faults observed , 
Set in a note-book, learned and conned by rote, 
To cast into his teeth. 

28. Within our beds awhile we heard, 

The wind that round the gables roared; 

With now and then a ruder shock, 

Which made our very bedsteads rock. 

We heard the loosened clapboards tost, 

The board-nails snapping in the frost; 

And on us, through the unplastered wall, 

Felt the light-sifted snowflakes fall. 



CHAPTER XVI. 


CONSTRUCTIONS OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Construction IX.—Showing an Adjective or an Ad¬ 
verbial Relation. 

Examples.— The top of the house, The way to town, The horse ran 
through the village. 

Rem.— This is the chief construction of prepositions. They may, 
however, occasionally have other constructions, such as apposition, 
absolute , etc. 

369. Position. —A preposition usually follows the prin¬ 
cipal term and precedes the modifier, but this order is not 
invariable. 

1. Both terms may follow the preposition; as, From Chicago we 
went to St. Louis; The house at WHICH we STOPPED. 

2. Both terms may precede the preposition; as, The house that 
we STOPPED at; The man WHOM we SPOKE to; The man WHO WAS 
SPOKEN to; We wish him to be spoken to; His being spoken to 
was the cause of his conduct. 

Rem. 1 .— Some authors teach that a sentence should not end with 
a preposition; and 1 have seen the statement, that “A preposition is 
not a good word to end a sentence with ”; but few writers and speakers 
submit to be bound by this senseless rule. 

Rem. 2.—The last three examples illustrate the fact that a word 



192 


SYNTAX. 


may be the object of a preposition and the subject of a verb at the 
same time. In other words, the subject of a verb may also be an 
adverbial modifier of the verb. The subject relation controls in regard 
to case. 


Exercises in Parsing Prepositions. 

The Steps. 

1. Classify the word. 

2. State its construction— i.e. state that it shows the adjec¬ 
tive or adverbial relation of its object ( na?ning it) to the 
principal term ( naming it). 

Note. —In parsing, the base of the object of a preposition is called the object. 

Models. 

I. 

Sentence. 

Yet not to thine eternal resting-place 
Shalt thou retire alone, nor couldst thou wish 
Couch more magnificent. 

Parsing. 

To: 

1. Classification. —Preposition, of place—motion to, simple. 

2. Construction. —IX., showing the adverbial relation of the noun 
resting-place to the verb shalt retire. 

II. 

Sentence. 

I have not seen him since Christmas. 

Parsing. 

Since: 

1. Classification. —Preposition, of time, simple. 

2. Construction.— IX., showing the adverbial relation of the noun 
Christmas to the verb have seen. 



CHAPTER XVII. 


CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Construction X.—Connecting Co-ordinate Terms. 

Examples.—J ohn and James study dilligently, but Charles and 
Henry are indolent; You may go or stay; Neither John nor 
James is to blame. 

370. Position.— Conjunctions in this construction usu¬ 
ally stand between the terms they connect. 

Construction XI—Introducing a sentence or a 
member of a sentence—not as an expletive. 

Examples.—#" John comes, I will inform you; Though his oppor¬ 
tunities were great, he did not improve them. 

371 . Position.— Conjunctions in this construction usu¬ 
ally precede the terms they introduce. 


Exercises in Parsing Conjunctions. 

(a) If a codrdinative conjunction, name 



(b) If a subordinative conjunction, tell 
what it introduces. 


the terms it connects 


Sentence. 


Models. 

I. 

On a sudden, open fly, 


X93 



194 


SYNTAX, 


With impetuous recoil and jarring sounds, 

The infernal doors ; and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder.—M ilton. 

Parsing. 

And : 

1. Classification. —Conjunction, coordinative, copulative, simple. 

2. Construction. —Connects the two sentences, On a sudden, open 
fly, with impetuous recoil and jarring sounds, the infernal doors , and on 
their hinges grate harsh thunder. 

Sentence. II. 

They set a strong guard, lest any should escape. 

Parsing. 

Lest: 

1. Classification. —Conjunction, subordinative, of end or purpose, 
simple. 

2. Construction. —XL, introducing the sentence, any should escape. 

Models for Parsing Interjections. 

Sentence. 1. 

Ah! who can tell how hard it is to climb 

The steep where Fame’s proud temple shines afar. 

* —Beattie. 

Parsing. 

Ah : 

1. Classification.— Interjection, of sadness, simple. 

2. Construction. — VI. (b), absolute by exclamation. 

Sentence. II. 

O, it is excellent 

To have a giant’s strength, but it is tyrannous 
To use it as a giant.— SHAKSPERE. 

Parsing. 

O: 


2 . 


Classification. —Interjection, of earnestness, simple. 
Construction. —VI. (h), absolute as an introductory expletive. 




CHAPTER XVIII. 


SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS. 

I. Preliminary Definitions. 

372. A Sentence is a word, or combination of words, 
consisting at least of a verb and its expressed or implied sub¬ 
ject ; as, (i) Go ; (2) I write; (3) The boys recite well ; (4) 
The man sitting by the window is the one I wish to see ; (5) 
John and James study and recite well ; (6) All men are 
created equal, and the Declaration of Independence affirms it. 

Remark. To say that a sentence “is a thought expressed in 
words,” is to define the term as used in logic—the science of the formal 
laws of thought. Grammar has to do with language, and is concerned 
with the thought expressed by a sentence, so far only as the thought 
may aid in determining the relation of the parts of the sentence. If 
a sentence were a thought, ‘ John shut the door,’ and ‘ The door was 
shut by John,’ would be the same sentence, as the thought of the two 
expressions is the same. 

373. All Element of a sentence is a word or combina¬ 
tion of words entering with a certain degree of unity into the 
structure of the sentence. 

374. To Analyze a sentence is to classify it, determine 
and classify its elements and tell their respective relations. 


195 



196 


ANAL YSIS. 


Rem.—Parsing properly embraces analysis as well as what is com¬ 
monly called parsing, the distinction turning on whether a sentence or 
a word is made the unit. To parse a word is to classify it, state its 
modifications, and tell its constructions. In parsing or “ analyzing ” a 
sentence, we first consider the sentence as whole, then its parts or 
elements. 

II. Sentences Classified. 

375 . As to mode of verb, sentences are either Complete or 
Abridged. 

376. A Complete Sentence is one whose verb is finite. 

377. An Abridged Sentence is one whose verb is an 
infinitive or a participle. 

Rem.—In the following definitions complete sentences will be spoken 
of simply as sentences. When an abridged sentence is meant, the 
adjective will be used. 

378 . As to structure, sentences are Simple , Complex , Com¬ 
pounds or Partial Compound. 

379. A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one 
finite verb and its simple or complex subject. 

Example.—All men are created equal. 

380. A Complex Sentence is one that contains a sub¬ 
ordinate sentence. 

Examples.—(1) That all men are created equal is true ; (2) I gave 
the book to the man who called for it. 

381. A Subordinate Sentence is one that forms a part 
of another sentence; as, All men are created equal , and Who 
called for it, in the foregoing examples. 




ANAL YSIS. 


197 


382. With reference to its subordinate sentence, the entire 
complex sentence is called the Principal Sentence. 

383. Most authors and teachers are accustomed to regard the prin¬ 
cipal sentence as that part of the complex sentence which is not the 
subordinate sentence; but that cannot be the case in the following 
examples: (1) That all men are created equal is true ; (2) I believe that 
all men are created equal; (3) His words were, <( All men are created 
equals 

The advantage of regarding the entire complex sentence as the principal sen¬ 
tence was, I think, first seen by Dr. Holbrook. (See his Complete Grammar.) 

3S4. A Compound Sentence is one that consists of two 
or more sentences of equal rank. 

Examples. —(1) John went to town but Henry remained at home ; 
(2) That all men are created equal is true, and the Declaration of 
Independence affirms it. 

385. The first one of the equal sentences of a compound sentence is 
sometimes called the Leading Member; the second is called the Co¬ 
ordinate Member. If the compound sentence is made up of more than 
two sentences of equal rank, those which follow the first are referred to 
as the First Coordinate Member, the Second Coordinate Member, etc. 

Rem. —Any, or all, of the members of a compound sentence may, 
or may not, be connected by conjunctions. A conjunction may be 
used to connect the last two members only. When the conjunction is 
omitted, it is unnecessary to supply it in the analysis. 

386. A Partial Compound Sentence is one whose 
subject or predicate, or both, is compound. 

Examples.— (1) John and James study diligently; (2) John studies 
diligently and recites well; (3) John and James study diligently and 
recite well. 



ANAL YSIS. 


198 


387. As to the nature of the thought expressed, sentences 
are Declarative , Imperative, 1 nterrogative, or Exclamatory. 

388. A Declarative Sentence is one that makes a 
declaration. 

Example. —John studies diligently. 

389. An Imperative Sentence is one whose verb is in 
the imperative mode. 

Example.— John, study diligently. 

390 . An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a 
question. 

Example.— Does John study diligently? 

391. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses 
strong emotion. 

Example. — (1) Oh John, study diligently. (2) “ Lord, how are they 
increased that trouble me.” 

Directions.—Classify the following sentences : 

1. Man is the creature of interest and ambition. 2. Such a secret 
can be safe nowhere. 3. What, sir, was the conduct of the South 
during the revolution ? 4. The plains of South Carolina drank up the 
most precious blood of her citizens. 5. The right honorable gentle¬ 
man called me an “ unimpeached traitor.” 6. There does not seem 
to be much relevancy in what you have said. 7. Such a man may be 
simple and rough, but he can not be vulgar. 8. While the union lasts 
we have high, exciting, gratifying prospects spread out before us, for 
us and our children. 9. I don’t know which burglar, but I hear some 
one moving around. 10. To me comes the brakeman, and seating 
himself on the arm of the seat, says : u I went to church yesterday.” 
11. Let us think that his dying eyes read a mystic meaning which 
only the rapt and parting soul may know. 12. ‘‘ One must do in Rome 



ANAL YSIS. 


199 


as Rome does,” Penn said in a dandified manner, jingling some sover¬ 
eigns in his waistcoat pocket. 13. The face of the innocent sleeper 
was turned from the murderer, and the beams of the moon resting on 
the gray locks of his aged temples, showed him where to strike. 14. 
I told the pretor that the dead man had been my friend, generous and 
brave ; and I begged that I might bear away the body, to burn it on a 
funeral pile, and mourn over its ashes. 

15. If ye are beasts, then stand there like fat oxen, waiting for the 
butcher’s knife! 

16. I see the long procession 
Still passing to and fro, 

The young heart hot and restless, 

And the old subdued and slow. 

17. At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 

Should tremble at his power. 

18. All day long through Frederick street 
Sounded the tread of marching feet; 

All day long that free flag tossed 
Over the heads of the rebel host. 

19. In deeds resplendent and in honor bright, 

In high example, shining as the light, 

He lives immortal, he who died that night 

At Elberon. 

20. The workmanship wherewith the gold is wrought, 

Adds yet a richness to the richest gold : 

Who lacks the art to shape his thought, I hold, 

Were little poorer if he lacked the thought. 

The statue’s slumber were unbroken still 
Within the marble, had the hand no skill. 

Disparage not the magic touch that gives 
The formless thought the grace whereby it lives. 

III. Classifications of Elements. 

392 . As to relative importance, elements are Principal or 
Subordinate. 



200 


ANAL YSIS. 


393. Tlie Principal Elements are the essential parts of 
a sentence. They are the Subject and the Predicate. All 
other elements are subordinate. 

394. The Subject is that part of a sentence concerning 
which the act, state, etc., is expressed. 

Note.— In parsing, the base of the subject is called the subject of the verb. 

395. The Predicate is that part of the sentence which 
expresses the act, state, etc. 

Note.— The base of the predicate is either a copula and its complement or some 
verb other than the copula. 

Directions.—Determine the subject and predicate of the following 
sentences. Determine the base of the subject and the base of the 
predicate. 

i. In his council Governor Van Twiller presided with great state 
and solemnity. 2. So ended the most evenly contested and ex¬ 
citing foot-ball match ever played at Barford Bridge. 3. His star, his 
love of glory, his doctrine of the immortality of the soul, are all 
French. 4. How is it that the wind blows ? 5. Behold him waist 

deep in the sand. 6. Yet here was the mayor getting on inexorably. 
7. Happy is the man that loves flowers. 8. So long ago as the time 
of the Greeks it was already known that amber, when rubbed, will at¬ 
tract or draw toward it bits of straw or other light bodies. 9. Now this 
overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskillful laugh, can¬ 
not but make the judicious grieve. 10. The sword of Washington! 
The staff of Franklin! O, sir, what associations are linked in adamant 
with these names. 11. Right and wrong, justice and crime, exist in¬ 
dependently of our country. 12. With this little boy, the only pledge 
of her departed exciseman, Mrs. Bardwell shrank from the world, and 
courted the retirement and tranquility of Goswell Street. 13. Mr. 



ANALYSIS. 


201 


President, it is natural for man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 14. 
Such, sir, is the testimony of one not to be accused of partiality in his 
estimate of America. 

396. As to the base, or principal term, elements are of three 
kinds, First Class, Second Class , and Third Class. 

397. An Element of tlie First Class is one whose base 
is a single word. 

Examples.— (1) The man; (2) Some men are industrious; (3) This 
book, a DICTIONARY which I often consult , is very useful; (4) A book 
written by an American author. 

Note. —In the third example, dictionary is the base of the element a dictionary 
which I often consult. In the fourth example, written is the base of the element 
written by an American author. 

398. An Element of the Second Class is one whose 
base is a preposition and its object or an infinitive. 

Examples.— ( 1) The man by the window; (2) A book written by an 
American author; (3) A book written BY an author who understands 
his subject; (4) Houses TO LET; (5) We expect TO GO home next Thurs¬ 
day. 

Note 1.—In the third example, by author is the base of the element by an author 
who understands his subject. In the fifth example, to go is the base of the element 
to go home next Thursday. 

Note 2.—The preposition is called the antecedent, and its object is called a sub¬ 
sequent. 

399. An Element of the Third Class is one whose base 
is a sentence. 

Examples.— (1) The man whom you saw is my father; (2) The book 
which you bought of the agent is here; (3) 1 know that books which treat 
of history are not always interesting. 




202 


ANAL YSIS. 


Note.—I n the third sentence, that books which treat of history are not always 
interesting is the object of knoiv. It is a complex sentence, since it contains the 
subordinate sentence, which treat of history. 

400. As to structure, elements are Simple , Complex, Com¬ 
pound, or Partial-Compound. 

Elements of the First Class. 

401. An element of the first class is Simple if it consists 
of one word, simple, complex, or compound; as, ‘ Good boys 

‘ Very tall men ’ ; ‘ Examples of this kind ‘ Many a man 
‘ Thick-warbled songs.’ 

402. An element of the first class is Complex if its base 
is modified ; as, ‘ Very good boys ‘ I bought a volume of 
poems 9 ; ‘ I saw the man who committed the offensel 

403. An element of the first class is Compound if it con¬ 
sists of two or more simple or complex first-class elements of 
equal rank ; as, 1 Long and difficult problems ‘ A tree dead at 
the top , and stripped of most of its branches , stood by the way- 
side.’ 

Elements of the Second Class. 

404. An element of the second class is Simple if it is 
either a preposition and its unmodified object or an unmodi¬ 
fied infinitive ; as, ‘ He has gone to town ‘ I wish to god 

405. An element of the second class is Complex if its base 
or a part of its base is modified ; as, ‘ He has gone to his 
home ’; ‘He threw the stone nearly across the river ‘ I wish 
to go home now.' 

406. An element of the second class is Compound if it 




ANAL YSIS. 


203 


consists of two or more simple or complex second-class ele¬ 
ments of equal rank ; as, ‘ The good knight without fear and 
without reproach ‘ I gave him a book to read and to criticise 
‘ He lives in the first house beyond the bridge and on the left 
side of the road.' 

407. An element of the second class is Partial-Com¬ 
pound if it consists of a preposition and its compound object; 
as, ‘ He was a man without hope or fear .’ 

Elements of the Third Class. 

408. An element of the third class is Simple if it is a simple 
sentence. 

409. An element of the third class is Complex if it is a com¬ 
plex sentence. 

410. An element of the third class is Compound if it is a 
compound sentence. 

411. An element of the third class is Partial-Compound 
if it is a partial-compound sentence. 

412. As to relation, subordinate elements are Modifying, 
Connective , Introductory , or Independent. 

413 . Modifying Elements are Adjective , Adverbial , Ob¬ 
jective, or Subjective. 

414 . An Adjective Element is one that modifies a noun 
or pronoun. 

415 . An Adverbial Element is one that modifies some¬ 
thing else than a noun or pronoun, or an active transitive verb 
as its object, or a not-finite verb as its subject. 



204 


ANAL YSIS. 


416. An Objective Element is one that is used as the 
object of a transitive verb in the active voice. 

417. A Subjective Element is one that is used as the 
subject of a not-finite verb. 

418. The Connective Elements are those which con¬ 
nect other elements. 

419. The Introductory Elements are those which 
introduce other elements^ 

420. An Independent Element is a subordinate ele¬ 
ment not used to introduce, connect, or modify other elements 
in other sentence. 

Exercises in Diagraming and Analysis. 

Models. 

I .—Simple Sentences. 

Sentences. 

1. Boys play. 

2. Those boys play quietly. 

3. Those small boys play very quietly. 

Diagrams. 

!. r B ° yS 2. r b0ys|Th0Se 3. r b0yS js T m h alT 

1 —play. Lplay | quietly. 1 — play | quietly. | very 

Explanations.—1. The bracket is used to connect the subject and predicate of a 
complete sentence. 2. Modifying elements follow the terms which they modify. 3. 
The vertical bar is used to separate a single modifier from its base. 4. The brace is 
used to separate two or more modifiers from their common base. 

Oral Analysis. 

1. Boys play is a sentence—simple, declarative. Boys is the simple 
subject, and play is the simple predicate. 



ANALYSIS. 


205 


2. Those boys play quietly is a sentence—simple, declarative. Those 
boys is the complex subject: boys , the base, is modified by those— a 
simple, adjective element of the first class. Of which sentence also, 
play quietly is the complex predicate: play , the base, is modified by 
quietly —a simple adverbial element of the first class. 

3. Those small boys play very quietly is a sentence—simple, declara¬ 
tive. Those small boys is the complex subject: boys , the base, is modi¬ 
fied by those and small —two simple adjective elements of the first 
class. Of which sentence also, play very quietly is the complex predi¬ 
cate : play, the base, is modified by very quietly —a complex, adverbial 
element of the first class, of which quietly is the base, modified by very 
—a simple, adverbial element of the first class. 

Directions.— Diagram and analyze the following sentences: 

1. The boys ran away very quickly. 2. That man lives here. 
3. Why did you go so soon? 4. How quickly the boys ran away. 
5. Your new book is ruined. 6. My brother’s new book has been 
soiled. 7. I shall go back immediately. 8. My friend, John, is here 
now. 9. We did not walk all the way. 10. Our friends did not stay 
here long. 11. They went home yesterday. 12. Where do they live? 
13. Shall we go home now ? 14. He will be here next Monday. 

15. The horse ran the first mile very rapidly. 

Notes.—1. In the eighth sentence John modifies friend, and is a simple, ad¬ 
jective element of the first class. 2. In the ninth sentence, way modifies walk. 
3. In the eleventh sentence, home and yesterday modify went. 

II .—Simple Sentences. 

Sentences. 

1. John is tall. 

2. He walked into the house. 

3. He is not my friend. 

4. The boy is tall and strong. 

5. The house stands between this road and that river. 

6. Those small boys and girls are not so quiet always. 




206 


ANAL VS/S. 


i. 


C 

[ 


■John 

is—tall. 
■He 


is i-friend. | my 
1 not 


,[ l 


■house | The 
tands I between- 


6 . 


d 


boys 

f Those 

and y 


girls 

[ small 


-are-—quiet | so 
not 

always. 


i 


2 . 


4- 


|—He 

-walked | into—house, j the 


L, 

c: 


•boy J The 
tall 

.is—/ and 
^strong. 




road j this 
and 

river. | that 


Explanations.—i. The dash is used to separate a copula and its complement (as 
shown in sentences i and 4), and to separate a preposition and its object (as shown 
in sentences 2 and 5). 2. The combined dash and bar, or dash and half brace is 
used to separate a modifier, or modifiers, from the copula (as shown in sentences 3 
and 6). 3. The angle is used to connect the bases of compound elements (as shown 
in sentences 4, 5 and 6), and to connect bases having a common modifier, or com¬ 
mon modifiers (as shown in sentences 6 and 7). 

Oral Analysis. 

(Sentence No. i.)—John is tall is a sentence—simple, declarative. 
7 'ohn is the simple subject, and is tall is the simple predicate —is being 
the copula, and tall the complement. 





ANAL YS/S. 


207 


2. {Sentence No. j.)—The house stands between the road and the river 
is a sentence—simple, declarative. The house is the complex subject: 
house , the base, is modified by the —a simple adjective element of the 
first class. Of which sentence also stands between the road and the river 
is the complex predicate: stands , the base, is modified by between the 
road and the river, a partial-compound, adverbial element of the second 
class, between being the antecedent, and the road and the river the com¬ 
pound subsequent, the two members of which are complex and are 
connected by and. Road , the base of the first member of the subse¬ 
quent, is modified by this —a simple, adjective element, of the first 
class; and river , the base of the second member, is modified by that — 
a simple adjective element of the first class. 

3. {Sentence No. 6 .) — Those smalt boys and girls are not so quiet al¬ 
ways is a sentence—partial-compound, declarative. Those small boys 
and girls is the compound subject, the two members of which are con¬ 
nected by and , and each modified by those and small— two simple, 
adjective elements, of the first class. Of which sentence also are not 
so quiet always is the complex predicate; are quid is the base; are , the 
copula, is modified by not and always —two simple, adverbial elements 
of the first class; and quiet , the base of the complex complement, is 
modified by so —a simple, adverbial element of the first class. 

Directions.—Diagram and analyze the following sentences. 

1. The sun’s heat is intense. 2. He lives in a beautiful valley. 
3. We are enemies no longer. 4. The forest is very dark and gloomy. 

5. He passed on through rich meadows and fields of waving grain. 

6. Good books and pleasant company are great advantages. 7. We 
shall go from here to Chicago. 8. Why have you not gone to school 
to-day? 9. We shall return after attending to this matter. 10. He 
often walks along this street in the afternoon. 


III.—Simple Sentences. 


Sentences. 

1. The boy studies his lesson diligently. 











208 


ANAL YSIS. 



2. We wish him to study his lesson diligently. 

3. We elected John captain without much opposition. 

4. The man gave the child a large red apple. 

5. Our case having been tried, the judge promptly dismissed us. 

6. John, our hired man, has gone to town. 

Diagrams. 



■judge | the 


.dismissed 

■John, | (ap.) man, ^ 


.dismissed -j (? K U , S ‘ 


) \P) us. . Q ur 
( (ab.) case -j having been tried, 


our 

hired 


■has gone | to—town. 


to—town. 





ANAL YSIS. 


209 


Explanations.—1. An objective element is marked “( 0 );” a subjective element 
is marked “(S);” a factive object is marked li (f. 0.);” an indirect object is 
marked “(*. 0.);” an absolute adverbial element is marked “(a£.);” an element 
in apposition with another is marked “(a/.).” 2. An unmarked element follow¬ 
ing a verb is to be considered as an ordinary adverbial element. 

Oral Analysis. 

1. {Sentence No. 2.) We wish him to study diligently is a sentence 
—simple, declarative. We is the simple subject. Of which sentence 
also wish him to study his lessons diligently is the complex predicate : 
wish,\he base, is modified by him to study diligently, a complex objective 
element of the second class— to study, the base, being modified by him — 
a simple, subjective element of the first class,—by diligently —a simple, 
adverbial element of the first class,—and by his lesson— a complex, 
objective element of the first class, of which lesson , the base, is modi¬ 
fied by his —a simple, adjective element of the first class. 

2. {Sentence No. J.) We elected John captain without much opposi¬ 
tion is a sentence—simple, declarative. We is the simple subject. 
Of which sentence also, elected John captain without much opposition is 
the complex predicate : elected , the base, is modified by John —a sim¬ 
ple, objective element of the first class,— by captain —a simple, ad¬ 
verbial element of the first class,—and by without much opposition—■a. 
complex, adverbial element of the second class, of which without oppo¬ 
sition is the base, without being the antecedent, and opposition the 
subsequent, modified by much —a simple, adjective element of the 
first class. 

Directions.— Diagram and analyze the following sentences : 

1. I bought a large apple at the fruit stand. 2. The man wished 
to stay at our house all night. 3. In the first place, we have no choice. 
4. Your father helped the general win this victory. 5. Give your 
playmates an equal chance to enjoy the game. 6. The study of good 
books will discipline and improve our minds. 7. Good company will 
make the poorest meal a feast. 8. Our journeying home has made us 
very tired. 9. This fact having been established, we easily won our 



210 


ANALYSIS. 


case. io. The sun being risen, we promptly resumed our march 
toward the enemy's country. 


IV .—Complex Sentences . 


Sentences. 

1. The man who toils should receive his reward. 

2. The tree lies where it fell. 

3. Here is the spot where the house stood. 

4. If you study diligently, you will be able to recite well. 

5. The lion said, “ I do not intend to hurt anybody.” 

6. Tully’s observation was, that friendship improves happiness and 
abates misery. 

7. You ran faster than I did. 

8. You ran as fast as I did. 

9. He was so honest that all respected him. 

10. Take what you want. 

11. It is true that I sent for you. 

12. There was a man here to see you. 

Diagrams. 



L-should receive | (o) reward. | his 


p- tree | The 

■—lies | p* 

•—fell. | where 


c 


[ the 

.spot-j'|- house l the 4. 
[I—stood. | where 


[: 


.you 
-will be 


is | Here 


able | to—recite | well, 
you 


!<«>[”' 

L— 


■study | diligently, 


5 - 



j not 

\ (o) to—hurt | 


(o) anybody.” 





ANAL YSIS. 


211 


6 . 


7 - 


8 . 


C observation | Tully’s 

.—friendship 
was,— (that) I 


[ 


did. [runj 

r 1 

S—did. [runj | as 


io. 


•You 

•ran | faster I (than) P* 
Ldi 

■You 

■ran | fast | as 
He 

was—honest | so | (that) 
[you] 


improves | (o) happiness 
and 

abates | (o) misery. 


C elt) (that) r 

l-s 

is—true 


[persons] all 
I—respected | (o) him. 

You 

want. [ (o) what 


P 

■sent | for—you. 12. 

■mb' 


(There) man | a 

W oc i here 

] to—see | (o) you. 


Explanations.—i. Relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs are underlined to 
show that they have two functions, a. Subordinative conjunctions and introduc¬ 
tory expletives are enclosed by parentheses. 3. The brackets are used to enclose a 
word, or words, not expressed in the original but implied (as shown in sentences 
7, 8, and 9.) They are also used to indicate an ellipsis when the omitted word, or 
w T ords, cannot be determined with certainty (as shown in sentence 10.) 


Oral Analysis. 

1. (Sentence No. /.) The man who toils should receive his reward is 
a sentence—complex, declarative. The man who toils is the complex 
subject: man , the base, is modified hy the— a simple, adjective element 
of the first class, and is further modified by who toils —a simple, adjec- 




212 


AJVAL YSIS. 


tive element of the first class. Who toils is also a sentence—simple, 
declarative—of which who is the simple subject and also the introduc¬ 
tory element: of which subordinate sentence also, toils is the simple 
predicate. Of which principal sentence also should receive his reward 
is the complex predicate : should receive , the base, is modified by his 
reward —a complex, objective element of the first class, of which re¬ 
ward , the base, is modified by his —a simple, adjective element of the 
first class. 

2. (Sentence No. //.)—It is true that 1 sent for you is a sentence— 
complex, declarative. It—that I sent for you is the simple subject, of 
which it is the introductory expletive. That I sent for you is also a 
simple declarative sentence, of which that is the introductory element, 
and/is the simple subject. Of which subordinate sentence also sent 
for you is the complex predicate : sent , the base, is modified by for you 
—a simple, adverbial element of the second class. Of which principal 
sentence also is true is the simple predicate, is being the copula, and 
true the complement. 

V .—Compound Sentences, 

Sentences. 

1. I walked, but you rode. 

2. The summer has gone, and autumn is here. 

3. He pointed silently to the fire, toward which the figure advanced. 

4. We shall go into the country next week, where we expect to 
remain till winter. 


Diagrams. 

,T 1 

l l—walked, 
but 

Ypy° u 

Lrode. 


C summer | The 
has gone, 

and 


C autumn 
is | here. 


« 




ANALYSIS. 


213 


3 - 


He 
pointed 


( silently 


(to—fire, | the 
figure | the 


advanced | toward— which 
We 

shall go 


( into—country | the 
(week, | next 


we 

expect 


where 


(o).to—remain | till—winter. 


Oral Analysis* 

1. (Sentence No. /.) —I walked, but you rode is a sentence—compound, 
declarative—the two members of which are connected by but. The 
leading sentence, I walked, is simple, / is the simple subject, and walked 
is the simple predicate. 

The coordinate sentence, you rode , is also simple. You is the simple 
subject, and rode is the simple predicate. 

2. (Sentence No. J.)—He pointed silently to the fire , toward which the 
figure advanced is a sentence—compound, declarative—the two mem¬ 
bers of which are connected by which. 

The leading sentence, He pointed silently to the fire , is simple, etc... 

The coordinate sentence, Toward which the figure advanced, is also 
simple. 

The figure is the complex subject, etc. 

Advanced toward which, is the complex predicate, etc. 


VI.— Partial- Compound Sentences. 

Sentences. 

1. John and James study grammar. 

2. John studies diligently and recites well. 









214 


ANAL YSIS. 


3. John and James study diligently and recite well. 

4. The man who can read and write, and the man who has no edu¬ 
cation, are unequally equipped for the battle of life. 


1. 


Diagrams. 

John 
and 
James 

-study | (o) grammar. 
John 
X and 
James 

study | diligently 
<^and 

recite I well. 


t 

l 


r-John 

2. I studies 1 diligently 
^"<(^and 

recites | well. 


- The 



<who 

read 

■can/ 

^and 

write, 


, the 
) 1—who 

Lhas | (o) education, | no 

S unequally 

(the 

for—battle ■< 

of-life. 


Oral Analysis. 

1. (Sentence No. /.)—John and James study grammar is a sentence 
—partial-compound, declarative. John and James is the compound 




ANALYSIS. 


215 


subject, the two members of which are each simple, and are connected 
by and. Study grammar is the complex predicate : study , the base, 
is modified by grammar —a simple, objective element of the first class. 

2. ( Sentence No. 3.) — John and James study diligently and recite 
well is a sentence—partial-compound, declarative. John and James is 
the compound subject, the two members of which are each simple, 
and are connected by and. Study diligently and recite well is the com¬ 
pound predicate, the two members of which are connected by and. 
Study diligently , the first member, is complex ; study , the base, being 
modified by diligently— a simple, adverbial element of the first class: 
recite well , the second member, is also complex ; recite, the base, being 
modified by well—?L simple, adverbial element of the first class. 


VII.— Miscellaneous. 


Sentences. 

1. He sailed nearly around the world. 

2. The lake is thought to be deep. 

3. There is the boy whom we had punished. 

,4. We saw him brushing with hasty steps the dews away. 

5. The deeper the well, the cooler the water. 

6. We walked as fast as possible. 

7. I am not wiser, though old and gray. 



'• Lsai 


■sailed | around—world. | the 


| nearly 



■to-be,—deep. 

|(s) lake | The 

■is thought 



2 l6 


ANAL YSIS. 


ric 

L—is I There 


the 
■we 


■had | (o) [ ] punished. | (s) whom 


|“ We f (s) him 

4 L saw | (o) [ ] brushing \ 


5 ‘ 


6 . 


7 - 


-water. | the 
-[is]—cooler | the | | 

-We 

-walked | fast j as | ("” 

L_ 


] (o) dews | the 
away. 


.well | the 

[is]—deeper | The 


< [it] ) [to—walkj 

[was],—possible. 

I as 


r 1 

L—a 


■am,-wiser 


1 not |—[I J 
(. (though) I 


old 

[am ]—/ and 

X gray 


8 . Those who were most severe in ridiculing his attempting to rise 
in the world were astonished to see him succeed in spite of all obsta¬ 
cles; and, though they had treated with contempt his early efforts, 
they soon joined in stating that he was a rising man, and in represent¬ 
ing him to be their protege. 





ANAL YS/S. 


217 


[ 


f Those 


persons] <{ pyho 

L L 


were-severe i 


I most 


in-ridiculing | (o)attempting j gjtoW | in-world, | the 
were astonished | lessee | (o)[to]succeed j g>“” ile , of-^bstacles; | all 


and 


pthey 

Ljoincc 


f (though) £ 


•they 
had treated ^ 


joined <( soon 


{ with—contempt 
(o)eflbrts,{ e h £ Iy 


.in-stating | (o) (that) [*' s _ I « 
and ( rising 

\in—representing | (o)to—be|—protege. | their 
l(s) him 


SENTENCES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 

1. This hours work will breed proscriptions. 2. The brilliant 
flowers of the tropics bloom in the windows of the green-house. 3. In 
every period of life, the acquisition of knowledge is one of the most 
pleasing employments of the human mind. 4. Proverbial expressions 
and trite sayings are the flowers of the rhetoric of a vulgar man. 5. 
Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. 6. A grace¬ 
ful behavior toward superiors, inferiors, and equals, is a constant source 
of pleasure. 7. The distinguished historian, Xenophon, skillfully con¬ 
ducted the dangerous retreat. 8. Columbus died in ignorance of the 
real grandeur of his discovery. 9. The true character acts rightly, in 
secret or in the sight of men. 10. Our boat at first glides down the 
narrow channel, through the playful murmuring of the little brook 
and the winding of its grassy border. 11. Rhetoric employs the whole 
force of language, in its various forms, to image forth the soul of the 
orator, the poet, or the elegant prose writer, for the combined purpose 
of conviction and persuasion, 




2 l8 


ANAL YSIS. 




12. Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown. 13. A great man 
is one who affects his generation. 14. They attacked the fort with a 
force that could not be resisted. 15. They wondered at the degen¬ 
eracy of the people who were living at the time. 16. I had forgotten 
the circumstances which you mention. 17. The words which have 
universal power are those which have been keyed and chorded in the 
great orchestral chamber of the heart. 18. Those who would give the 
highest training to the mind must furnish it deeds of excellence, tales 
of heroism. 19. Revolutions which are acted out in a day have often 
been years or centuries in preparation. 

20. I know that thou art valiant. 21. I wish I ne’er had seen your 
face. 22. Patrick Henry concluded his great speech by saying, “ Give 
me liberty, or give me death.” 23. John Bright said of boys, “ Teach 
them arithmetic thoroughly, and they are made men.” 24. Have 
you heard what happened to him yesterday? 25. Do you know who 
received the appointment? 26. I know where the man lives. 27. 
Does he see what will happen, if he does not take more pains ? 28. 

He says that he will go to-morrow. 29. “ I have not seen him,” was, I 
think, an answer equivalent to saying, “ I shall not tell you where he 
is.” 30. He said that if he knew where he could find a good horse for 
sale, he would go and buy it at once. 

31. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which he did thrice re¬ 
fuse. 32. He pointed silently to the fire, toward which the figure 
advanced. 33. He gave me a book, which he requested me to read. 
34. I am touched at the conduct of some few men, who have lent their 
authority of their high-sounding names to these acts. 35. Give time 
to the study of nature, whose laws are important. 36. The boy often 
tormented his little sister, who loved him so dearly. 37. Civil war is 
an awful evil, of which, however, history furnishes many examples. 
38. The father of epic poetry is Homer, who has given us in the Iliad 
the story of Troy. 39. America may well boast of her Washington, 
whose character and fame are the common property of the world. 40, 



ANAL YSIS. 


219 


The poor man had been supported by his son, who now himself was 
ill. 41. Of course, we shall get nothing from John, who is so miserly 
that he never gives to the poor. 

42. We then went to Cincinnati, where we had other friends. 43. 
We then went to Cincinnati, where we remained a week. 44. We 
shall remain till next Monday, when we must return to our home. 46. 
We shall remain till Monday, which is the day appointed for the meet¬ 
ing we wish to attend. 

47. I know what detained the man. 48. I heard what detained the 
man. 49. I learned in a moment what had been troubling the boy : it 
was a difficult lesson which his teacher had assigned him. 50. I see 
what makes the man so faint: it is the bad air in this room. 51. 
When I was a small child, I knew who built the Ark. 52. I learned 
at school to-day who conquered Xerxes; and I know who won the Bat¬ 
tle of Plataea. 53. You can tell who did this. 54. I know who did it, 
but I am not acquainted with him. 

55. His father being dead, the prince ascended the throne. 56. 
Having declined the proposal, I determined on a course suited to my 
own taste. 57. He remained standing during the whole time. 58. 
He fell at his master’s feet, weeping bitteriy. 59 * Stretching from 
horizon to horizon, losing itself in the clouds above, it came pouring its 
green and massive waters onward. 60. Behind the black wall of the 
forest, tipping its summit with silver, arose the moon. 61. The invad¬ 
ing band marched toward the town, bearing a tri-colored flag sur¬ 
mounted by an eagle. 62. Overcoming his fear, he entered the King’s 
apartment, and dispatched him with a single stroke of his dagger. 63. 
Encouraged by this magnificent invitation, the inhabitants of the globe 
considered labor as their only friend. 64. Properly speaking, there is 
no such thing as chance. 65. The young maiden was seen standing 
on the shore, exposed to the merciless winds, and extending her hands 
toward heaven. 

67. If you will assist me, I will undertake it. 68. I wrote because 



220 


ANAL YSIS. 


it amused me. 69. He left the things exactly where he found them. 
70. We must not impute the delay to indifference, for it may be de¬ 
signed to promote our welfare. 71. Were I in his place, I would resign 
my commission. 72. Had he asked me for assistance, I should have 
rendered him all the aid in my power. 73. Though their provisions 
were well-nigh exhausted, yet they would not surrender. 74. If they 
have persecuted me, they will also persecute you. 75. A man should 
do right, simply because it is right. 76. Should he return before noon, 
have him call at the store. 77. When we dip too deep in pleasure, we 
always stir a sediment that reveals it impure and noxious. 

78. But I am met with the objection, “What good will the monu¬ 
ment do ? ” and I ask, in return, What good does anything do ? 

79. Aristotle says that upon the River Hypanis, in Asia, there ex¬ 
ist little insects who live only an hour, and that many generations of 
them pass away in a day. 

80. Then Judah came near unto him and said, “ O my lord, let thy 
servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord’s ears.” 

81. There is much that is deciduous in books, but all that gives 
them title to rank as literature in its highest sense is perennial.— Low¬ 
ell. 

82. I do not like to say it, but he has sometimes smothered the 
child-like simplicity of Chaucer under the feather-beds of verbiage.— 
Lowell. 

83. Energy will do anything that can be done in the world; and no 
talents, no circumstances, no opportunity will make a man without.it. 

84. No man forgets his original trade; the rights of nations and of 
kings sink into questions of grammar, if grammarians discuss them. 

85. Christianity was received in Ireland with a burst of popular 
applause and enthusiasm, and letters and arts sprang up rapidly in its 
train. 

86. The bad fortune of the good turns their faces up to Heaven, 
but the good fortune of the bad bows their faces down to earth. 



ANAL VS/S. 


221 


87. Children are travelers newly arrived in a strange country; we 
should make it a principle not to mislead them. 

88. That one should be mistaken, and commit errors, is simply 
that he should be human and act humanly. 

89. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice; but 
when the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. 

90. If, when he had good opportunities for education, he had im¬ 
proved them ; then, when an excellent situation was offered him, he 
would have been prepared for it. 

91. There are some thinkers about whom we always feel easy, be¬ 
cause they never have a thought of sufficient magnitude to be made 
uncomfortable by its possession. 

92. O ! it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious fellow tear a 
passion to tatters—to very rags—to split the ears of the groundlings ; 
who, for the most part, are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb 
show and noise. 

93. It must be borne in mind that no figures will render a cold or 
empty composition interesting; and that the figure is only the dress, 
while the sentiment is the body and the substance. 

94. When Stephen of Colonna fell into the hands of his base assail¬ 
ants, and they asked him in derision, “Where is now your fortress?” 
“ Here,” was his bold reply, placing his hand upon his heart. 

95. It is difficult for the most cool headed imposter long to person¬ 
ate an enthusiast, without in some degree believing what he is so eager 
to have believed. 

96. Self-denial is often attended with blessings that abundantly 
recompense such losses as the modest seem to suffer in the ordinary 
occurrences of life. 

97. Believing your own thoughts, believing that what is true for 
you in your private heart is true for all men—that is genius. 

98. The preacher is generally thought to have some advantage 
over the senator and advocate in treating his subjects. 



222 


ANAL YSIS. 


99. He was supposed to be very wealthy, but in forming its opinion 
on this point the world made the common mistake of noting what he 
had and neglecting what he owed. 

100. Demosthenes is said to have transcribed the history of Thu¬ 
cydides six times. 

101. He is said to have been the largest man in the world. 

102. The general horror excited by the massacre of St. Bartholomew 
is thought to have completed the ruin of the Catholic cause. 

103. That which is usually has very small importance, unless we 
remember that that which is produces that which shall be. 

104. He said that that that that that lady parsed was not that that 
that he asked her to parse. 

105. His busy and unselfish life was an example for his neighbors 
to follow, and when he died the memory of it was a precious heritage 
to his children. 

106. The Spartans, notwithstanding their austerity, prayed the 
gods to grant them the beautiful with the good. 

107. A complete and generous education fits a man to perform 
justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices of peace and war. 

108. I honor the man who is ready to sink 

Half his present repute for the freedom to think ; 

And when he has thought, be his cause strong or weak, 

Will risk t’ other half for the freedom to speak.—I/ jweli.. 

109. I know not how it is with other men, 

Whom I but guess, deciphering myself, 

For me, once felt is so felt nevermore.—I d. 

110. Our buskins on our feet we drew ; 

With mittened hands, and caps drawn low, 

To guard our necks and ears from snow, 

We cut the solid whiteness through.—W hittier. 

111. However full, with something more, 

We fain the bag would cram ; 

We sigh above our crowded nets 
For fish that never swam.—I d. 



ANAL YSIS. 


223 


X12. Not only around our infancy 

Doth heaven with all its splendors lie ; 

Daily with souls that cringe and plot 
We Sinais climb and know it not.— Dowell. 
ii3’ Other creature here, 

Beast, bird, insect, or worm, durst enter none.— Milton. 

114. That is the story of old John Burns : 

This is the moral the reader learns ; 

In fighting the battle, the question’s whether 

You’ll show a hat that is white, or a feather.—B ret Harte. 

115. A fellow says : “ I own no school or college ; 

No master lives whom I acknowledge ; 

And pray, don’t entertain the thought 
That of the dead I e'er learned aught.” 

This, if I rightly understand, 

Means : “I am a blockhead at first hand.”— Goethe. 

116. There are some qualities—some incorporate things, 

That have a double life, which thus is made 

A type of that twin entity which springs 

From matter and light, evinced in solid shade.—E. A. Poe. 

117. Vastness ! and Age ! and memories of Eld ! 

Silence and Desolation ! and dim Night ! 

I feel ye now—I feel ye in your strength— 

O spells more sure than e'er Judean king 
Taught in the gardens of Gethsemane ! 

O charms more potent than the rapt Chaldee 
Ever drew down from out the quiet stars.— Id. 

118. Dike as the waves make toward the pebbled shore, 

So do our minutes hasten to their end, 

Each changing place with that which goes before, 

In sequent toil all forwards do contend. 

Nativity, once in the main of light, 

Crawls to maturity, wherewith being crowned, 

Crooked eclipses ’gainst his glory fight, 

And Time that gave doth now his gift confound. 

Time doth transfix the flourish set on youth, 

And delves the parallels on beauty’s brow ; 

Feeds on the rarities of nature’s truth, 

And nothing stands but for his scythe to mow.—S hakspere. 





ANAL YS/S. 


224 


119. Then to her yron wagon she betakes, , 

And with her beares the fowle welfavoured witch ; 

Through mirksome aire her ready way she makes, 

Her twy fold teme, of which two blacke as pitch, 

And two werebrovme, yet each to each unlich, 

Did softly swim awaj^, ne never stamp, 

Unlesse she ehaunst theire stubborne mouths to twitch ; 

Then foaming tarre, their bridles they would champ, 

And trampling the fine element would fiercely ramp.— Spencer. 

I2 °* Him the Almighty Power 

Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky, 

With hideous ruin and combustion, down 
To bottomless perdition ; there to dwell 
In adamantine chains and penal fire, 

Who durst defy the Omnipotent to arms.— Milton. 

I21 * To bow and sue for grace 

With suppliant knee, and deify the power 
Who, from the terror of this arm, so late 
Doubted his empire—that were low indeed. —Id. 

I22 - Him followed his next mate, 

Both glorying to have ’scaped the Stygian flood 
As gods, and by their own recovered strength. —Id. 

123. But wherefore let we then our faithful friends, 

The associates and copartners of our loss, 

Die thus astonished on the oblivious pool?— Id. 

124. He scarce had ceased, when the superior fiend 

Was moving toward the shore ; his ponderous shield, 

Ethereal temper, massy, large and round, 

Behind him cast.—I d. 

I2 5 - The broad circumference 

Hung on his shoulders like the moon, whose orb 
Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views 
At evening from the top of Fesole, 

Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, 

Rivers, or mountains, in her spotty globe. 

126. His spear—to equal which the tallest pine 
Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast 





ANAL YS/S. 


225 


Of some great ammiral, were but a wand— 

He walked with, to support uneasy steps 
Over the burning marie.—I d. 

127. That honor claimed 
Azazel as his right, a cherub tall 

Who forthwith from the glittering staff unfurled 
The imperial ensign ; which, full high advanced, 

Shown like a meteor streaming to the wind, 

With gems and golden lustre rich emblazed, 

Seraphic arms and trophies, all the while 
Sonorous metal blowing martial sounds.— Id. 

128. And now his heart 

Distends with pride, and hardening in his strength, 

Glories ; for never since created man, 

Met such embodied force as, named with these, 

Could merit more than that small infantry 
Warr’d on by cranes.—I d. 

129. For thee, who mindful of the unhonor’d dead. 

Dost in these lines their artless tale relate, 

If, chance, by lonely contemplation led, 

Some kindred spirit shall inquire my fate, 

Haply some hoary-head swain may say, 

“ Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn, 

Brushing, with hasty step, the dews away, 

To meet the sun upon the upland lawn.’’ — Gray. 

130. I saw the day lean o’er the world’s sharp edge, 

" And peer into night’s chasm, dark and damp, 

High in his hand he held a blazing lamp, 

Then dropped it, and plunged headlong down the ledge. 

—Ella Wheeler. 

131. There are some men who, with heads little better than pins, 
are apparently successful in everything they undertake.— Matthews. 

132. A little blindness, a little self-confidence, a little ignorance of 
his own weaknesses and defects, are imperatively necessary, if one 
would strive with hope and pluck to win the world’s prizes.—I d. 

133. There is reason to fear that in the case of not a few persons the 



226 


ANALYSIS. 


mind is so rounded and polished by education, so well balanced, as not 
to be energetic in any one faculty.—I d. 

134. Now, when the said abbot had ruled the monastery of Scetis 
seven years with uncommon prudence, resplendent in virtue and in 
miracles, it befell that one morning he was late for the divine office.— 
Kingsley. 

135. “ The little fellow forgets,” said Arsenius with a smile, “to 
how much he has confessed already, and how easy it were now to trace 
him to the old hag’s lair.”—I d. 

136. By desiring what is perfectly good, even when we don’t quite 
know what it is, and cannot do what we would, we are a part of the 
divine power against evil.— George Eliot. 

137. Lycurgus, blending theft with the spirit of justice, the hardest 
slavery with extreme liberty, the most atrocious sentiments with the 
greatest moderation, gave stability to his city.— Montesquieu. 

138. Thus each of the good friars, in his turn, enjoys the luxury of 
a consecrated bed, attended with the slight drawback of being forced 
to get up long before daybreak and make room for another lodger.— 
Hawthorn. 

139. The contest between the morality which appeals to an external 
standard, and that which is grounded on internal conviction, is the 
contest of progressive against stationary morality, of reason and argu¬ 
ment against the deification of mere opinion and habit.—J. S. Mill. 

140. Amid the struggle for existence which has always been going 
on among living beings, variations of bodily conformation and structure, 
if in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, will tend to 
the preservation of that individual; and will generally be inherited by 
its offspring.—D arwin. 

141. To rescue this circle of studies from inadequate conceptions, 
and to lay the ground for a true idea of them, I have proposed to term 
them Homerology.— GLADSTONE. 

142. And at the threshold, postponing for the moment our notice 




ANAL YSIS. 


'ITJ 


of the controversies involved in what is termed the Homeric question, 
let us see how far we can acquire an idea of the poet himself, and the 
conditions under which he lived.—I d. 

143. It was therefore to be expected that, true to the nature of 
hot-blooded, daring, and self-relying youth, they would advise the cut¬ 
ting of the Gordian knot which the silver-headed sages of the revolution 
had vainly tried to disentangle.— Von Holst. 

144. It was a coincidence of the utmost importance that the ranks 
of the Revolutionary patriots had, by this time, become so thinned that 
the representatives of a new generation could grasp the helm without 
having to encounter the opposition of long acknowledged authority.—I d. 

145. Suddenly, in the air before them, not farther up than a low 
hill-top, flared a lambent flame; as they looked at it, the apparition 
contracted into a focus of dazzling lustre.— Wallace. 

146. At midnight the entrances were thrown open, and the rabble, 
surging in, occupied the quarters assigned to them, from which nothing 
less than an earthquake or an army with spears could have dislodged 
them.—I d. 

147. He was not much acquainted with valves of any sort, but he 
knew that valvce were folding doors, and through this crevice came a 
sudden light, startling him with his first vivid notion of finely adjusted 
mechanism in the human frame.— George Eliot. 

148. Be it known, then, that the afore-mentioned gentleman, in 
his leisure moments, which composed the greater part of the year, 
gave himself up with so much ardor to the perusal of books of chivalry, 
that he almost wholly neglected the exercise of the chase, and even the 
regulation of his domestic affairs ; indeed, so extravagant was his zeal 
in this pursuit that he sold many acres of arable land to purchase books 
of Knight-errantry.— Cervantes. 

149. There are some persons who imagine that capital is mcney, 
and this is precisely the reason why they deny its productiveness ; for, 
as John Ruskin and others say, Dollars are not endowed with the power 
of reproducing themselves.— Bastiat. 



228 


ANAL YSIS. 


150. William Penn was a true Lycurgus; and although the former 
had peace for his object, and the latter war, they resemble each other 
in the singular path along which they have led their people, in their 
influence over free men, in their prejudices which they have overcome, 
the passions they have subdued.— Montesquieu. 

151. The last blue headland of Sardinia was fading on the north¬ 
west horizon, and a steady breeze bore before it innumerable ships, the 
wrecks of Heraclian's armament, plunging and tossing impatiently in 
their desperate homeward race toward the coast of Africa.— Kingsley. 

152. The greatest obstacle to being heroic is the doubt whether one 
may not be going to prove one’s self a fool; the truest heroism is, to 
resist the doubt; and the profoundest wisdom to know when it ought 
to be resisted, and when to be obeyed.— Hawthorn. 





HELPS AND AIDS IN DRAWING. 


Blank Drawing Book. Contains 12 pp. of American Draw¬ 
ing Paper, 6 y 2 x 8 % inches; a sheet of tissue paper between every two 
sheets of drawing paper. The uses to which the book may be put are 
many. With some of the drawing designs we offer to be used for 
designs, and this book to contain the reproduced design, excellent 
work may be done and at a very small expense. Well bound. Neat 
manila cover. Prepaid, 8c., or 7 2c. perdoz. By express, * 4 . 50 per 

Children S Drawing Teacher. Three Assortments. New 

Designs. 

Each box contains 20 leather paper stencils of Animals, Children 
at Play, Houses, Fruits, Flowers, etc. 4 ) 4 x 6 inches, so perforated 
that a child can take a pencil and get an outline of each picture on 
paper, after which the sketch or outline may be filled out, thus af¬ 
fording amusement and profitable employment. An entire class 
may be kept busy for hours with these, thus relieving the teacher 
greatly. There aie now three collections, 1 , 2 , 3 , all new designs. 
Price, 25 c. per box or the three for 65 c. net. 

Drawing Made Easy Series of Cards. There are four sets 

in the series. 

Set No. 1 consists of fifty exercises on cards for reproduction by 
the pupils, accompanied by a Manual or Guide for the teacher. The 
designs are made up entirely of straight lines or straight and curved 
lines. They are objects that the" pupil is familiar with, instead of 
merely a combination of lines. Price of Cards and Manual_ 25 c. 

Set No. 2 consists of forty-seven designs all of such objects as 
children will take delight in reproducing. Among the set are Dog’s 
Heads (several different ones), a Pig, a Butterfly, a Rabbit, a Stump, 
a Calf, a Bridge, Flowers, an Old Fence, Birds and Nest, and many 
others of an equally pleasant variety. Price of Cards and Man¬ 
ual... 25 c. 

Set No. 3 contains some of the best designs in the entire series. 
These are largely of Animals, Fruit, Flowers, Birds, Houses. There 
are 49 designs and a Manual of Directions. Price, per set. 26 c. 

Set No. 4 has but twenty-eight designs, they being larger, and are 
of landscapes, in which shading is introduced. Children in Groups, 
Animals in various positions, or of other interesting subjects, and 
such as are easy to draw. Cards and Manual to teachers. 25 c. 

The four sets. 80 c. 

Hull’s Drawing Book. Founded and built up on nature 

and experience. The only self-instructing system extant. 

Instruction is given as a rule with each design. Note the follow¬ 
ing points: Complete Geometric Definitions. All the plane figures, 
how to draw them and cut from paper. Hundreds of designs or 
pictures in free hand, everyone described. All the solid forms and 
how to cut, fold, and paste paper to make them. 

It is the Book for Teachers who have beginners in reading and 
wish to make the picture with the word; who have from fifty to one 
nundred pupils and are puzzled to keep the little ones busy; who 
give language lessons; who use the blackboard; who desire to learn 
to illustrate all the subjects they teach; for all teachers of drawing; 
for kindergartners. Price of Drawing Book.... . 35 c. 

75 Very Easy Drawing Exercises. The title indicates 

the value of these helps. There are 75 designs of such articles as 
children delight in reproducing. Each is in a square which is 
marked by cross lines to assist in redrawing. Price, only 10c. per 
set. 

A. FLANAGAN, Chicago. 








SCHOOL SINGING BOOKS. 


Hanson’s Merry Songs. For Vocal Classes, Institutes, 

Day Schools, etc. By S. C. Hanson. , ,,, . 

Merry Songs is a new book, full of fresh and sparkling music. The 
attention of teachers is called to the following claims: 

1. The first eighteen pages constitute a Guide to the Art of Bead¬ 
ing and Singing Written music. -The teacher will be amazed at the 
novelty and simplicity of the first few lessons. 

2. The variety of the music is great, and something can be found 
for almost every occasion. Children’s Easy Songs and Glees, Solos, 
Duets, Songs and Glees, Sacred Songs, Choruses, Plantation Melo¬ 
dies, New Patriotic Songs and Grand National Airs. 

3. The book contains 118 pages, and has about as much music in 
it as the ordinary 75c. class and convention book. Two parts are 
written on each staff. 

4. MERRY SONGS was composed by a day school teacher, a man 
who knows the wants of his fellow sufferers. That he has hit the 
mark is shown by the large sales his books have had: MERRY 
MELODIES, out four years, 80,000 copies sold, MERRY SONGS, 
two vears, 20,000. Price, 35c. per copy. S3.60 per dozen. Sample 
copy 30c. to teachers. 

The Fountain Song Book Series, a new arrangement 

of this popular collection of singable pieces for Grammar and High 
School Grades and Country Schools is now ready. 

No 1. Revised, contains 80 pages of excellent music and words, 
all original. They are good in character and sentiment. Price, 15c. 
*1.50 per dozen. 

No. 2. Revised, contains 80 pages of the best music. Some origi- 
nal pieces, but many old favorites that will always be new. Price, 
15c. SI.50 per dozen. 

No. 3. Is a collection of old stand bys, by J. O. Leslie, a leading 
Illinois teacher and Institute conductor. It contains only the best 
that is to be found anywhere. Price, 15c. *1.50 per dozen. The 
three for 36c. There are no duplicate pieces. 

Dear Laud So Fair. A New, Beautiful, Patriotic Song 

and Chorus, together with other Patriotic Songs, should be sung in 
every school and home in the land. Will rival any of the old stand¬ 
bys.* Price only 15c. each. 

Sunbeams of Song. Thirty-two pages of original songs, 

words only, adapted to popular airs, the names of which are given. 
The words were written by a teacher of experience and are for school 
use only. Pupils will delight in singing them, and as no knowledge 
of music is required, they will be used in every school. Price, 7c. 
or 60c. per dozen. 

Songs Of School Life. Twenty-eight original songs (words 

only), suited to school use and adapted to familiar tunes. 

Just what scores of teachers and thousands of pupils will welcome. 
Original songs, the words within the pupli’s understanding; the 
tunes are those whicn all teachersandmostpupilsaie familiar with, 
such as “Marching Through Georgia,” “Dixie,” “What Can the 
Matter Be,” “ Yankee Doodle,” etc. 

They will add life to any school. They have been used and found 
just the thing to wake up a school on a dull day. They are within 
the reach of all. Price, postpaid, 7c. per copy. Per dozen, GOc. 

Congdon’s Chromatic Pitch Instrument. Convenient, 

simple, inexpensive; sounds “ doh ” for ten keys. Is used in the 
schools of Boston. Chicago. St Paul, Minneapolis and many other 
cities. Price, 50c. 

A. FLANAGAN, CHICAGO. 





ENTERTAINMENT BOOKS. 


Of all entertainments lately used in Scnool and Church Exhibi¬ 
tions. nothing has given as much satisfaction as Drills and 
Marches They are not difficult to prepare. All can take part in 
them and the audience is always pleased. I now offer a new set of 
these entertainments viz: 


Thompson’s Drills and Marches. 

Contains: 

Doll Waltz. 

Dude Bilk 
Wand Exercise 
Handkerchief Flirtation Drill. 

Shaking Quaker Drill. 

Thanksgiving March and Ex¬ 
ercises. 

Full directions and also an abundance of illustrations, showing 
many different positions on the stage, for each drill. Price.25c. 


Fa.ry Hoop Drill. 

Christmas Exercise and 
Drill. 

May Queen March. 

Imitation Dumb Bell Exer¬ 
cises. 


The School House Flag. A National patriotic exercise for 

flag raisings, festivals, and all patriotic entertainments. Contains 
32 pages of songs, recitations, and exercises. Price.15c. 

Columbia, or America's Cantata. An historical enter¬ 
tainment for school. Dialogues, songs, and acting. For advanced 
pupils or young folks. Price...”.25c. 

The Headlight. Dialogues, Recitations, and exercises for 
Sunday School and Mission Entertainments. For protestant 
churches, but undenominational. A very large collection carefully 
selected and adapted to all ages, old and young. Price.25c. 


“ Peabody’s Cantata of Ireland:’ it is a work designed 

exclusively for the use of Catholic schools as a book for study and 
singing and also especially for exhibition purposes, including a 
grand and most complete entertainment program. It forms a com¬ 
plete history of Ireland in outline arranged in Dialogue, Recitations 
and Songs. It is very artistic and patriotic, and sure to please all. 
Price..25c. 

Barnett’s Flag Drill. For Exhibitions, Social Entertain¬ 
ments, and all Patriotic Occasions 
A novel, attractive and entertaining exercise, suitable for the en¬ 
tire school. Admits of charming display of costumes and drapery. 
Easy to learn. FuL directions given. Seemingly difficult parts illus¬ 
trated. So arranged that parts may be omitted, thus making it 
suitable for long or short entertainments. Price.25c. 


Brown’s Popular Readings. To become the most popu¬ 
lar series yet issued, Each volume will contain 224 pages. Volume 
1. ready, contains new readings from Will Carlton, Bob. J. Bur¬ 
dette, Eligah Kellogg and others. Good paper, clear print, fresh 
and suitable matter. Other numbers will follow, two or more a year. 
Price, 25c. each. 

Reception Day, A series of dialogues, recitations, etc. 

6 Nos. ready. These contain a collection of fresh, original dialogues, 
recitaticns, class exercises and primary pieces. No scenery orstage- 
fittings are required It is the best collection we have ever seen for 
school use—not for public readers. Price, each 30c. Two or more, 

A. FLANAGAN, Chicaco. 










A System of Physical Culture 



.. BY, 


CARL BETZ 

Director and Supervisor of 
Physical- Culture , Kansas City, Ado. 

Fourth Book—Popular Gymnastics or 
Outdoor Gymnastics of the Play Ground 

For Boys aud Girls, now ready 


Nothing like it published before in this country. These sports are so 
grand and so heart-cheering that boys of all ages will welcome them. 
Nicely illustrated, full directions, all up to the times make it a very 
desirable book for every school to have. Price, 65c. 

CARL BETZ’S PHYSICAL CULTURE . 

Books are now controlled by me. The system is the German but 
has been adapted by the author to the needs of American Schools. 
He has been the most successful teacher of Physical Culture in this 
Country. His methods are used the world over. Book three has been 
recently adopted in Eondon, England 


FREE GYMNASTICS FOR GRADED SCHOOLS 

Now in 15th Thousand. The exercises are such as form a part 
of the great German system the result of a century’s work of some 
the best pedagogues, patriots and statesmen. Price 60c. Free 
Gymnastics for Ungraded Schools is an abridged edition of the 
above. Price 35c. 


LIGHT GYMNASTICS , „ 

or the Third Book contains exercises with Poles, Dumb Bells, 
Rings, and Wands and Indian Clubs. It gives the teacher all the es¬ 
sentials of exercises with movable appliances, and leads him on until 
he is able to free himself from the text of the book. Price 75c, 


Full Descriptions, Contents, etc. on request. 

Less than 200,000 Persons are using our Song Books. 

More than this number should be using them. Merry Songs 
is always a favorite. Thousands have been sold at 35c; Our net price 
now is 25c. 

Fountain Song Book No. 3 contains 72 pages of the best 
Miscellaneous, Sacred and Patriotic songs to be found anywhere. 
It is practical and cheap. 72 large pages; 15c, $1.50 per Doz. $10.00 per 
100. In Board binding, 20c., $2.00 per Doz. $15.00 per 100. 


MY BUSINESS . , , . , 

is to supply teachers everywhere with the best books and ap¬ 
paratus in their line for the least money, and with the greatest 
promptness than can be given. I claim to be a leader in this line. 
1 carry all works 011 Education. Send for my Catalogues. Free 

7 X, F-L-7SN7TG7TN, Chicago. 


































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